Friday, September 10, 2010
OPENINGS' TREATMENTS
A chapter on OPENINGS' TREATMENTS has been added to Interior Components and Systems (Interior Design Notes) Check my site www.gautamshah.in
Monday, June 21, 2010
IDENTIFICATION AND DECLARATIVE ELEMENTS ON OPENINGS
An opening system of a building offers many opportunities for the use of declarative elements to present the identity of the occupant and the nature of occupancy. The identification and declarative elements are very essential for personalization of the building.
Identification and declarative elements state the owner, the nature of ownership, and conditions for visitations. These are done by direct expressions as well as very subtle means. Often these are placed due to the social conditioning, without knowing their purpose or significance.
Openings are smaller apertures then the surrounding walls and so are the visual and functional focus of a space. To support these patterns that are axially symmetrical, incorporating a mid accentuation (rise in a circular segment), pointers, triangulation, vertically elongated shapes, formations of upright lines are used here. These elements as topping treatments also accentuate the height scale. Other openings like windows and gaps also carry similar elements to create a balance of similarity.
Identification elements differentiate a building within a group or associate the building to a category. Identical doors and windows conjoin several, even differently styled buildings into a cohesive entity, a colony. Similarly in a mass housing colony, people treat their doors, windows, or curtains, extravagantly different from their neighbours.
The identification and declarative elements announce the nature of opening like, entry, exit, restricted access. These elements on the outer face of a building project a message for the passerby and visitors, and the same occasionally placed on the interior side, reinforce it for the departing visitor.
Identification and declarative elements mark the identity and status of the owner, nature and antiquity of the ownership. The occupier’s name, caste, educational qualifications, native place and titles are marked over the door. The name of the building, its date of commencement or occupation is the common mention. Antiquity of the building is associated with the main entrance by marking of important events that have taken place in the building.
The entrance door is not just the factual place of arrival but is a metaphoric point of entrance for everything, good or evil, friend or enemy, known or unknown. A visitor, and everything else, is expected to arrive at the main door, in spite of many other convenient points. In some way it is a point of fear, doubt and danger as much as it is of hope, fulfilment and safety. Means of physical and spiritual defence are placed here even though there may be more vulnerable locations in a building.
The visitor’s announcement and identification systems are placed near the formal entrance, such as: bells, knockers, buzzers, talking pipes, whistles, sirens, rattlers, vibrators, horns, intercoms, video recognition, surveillance systems.
Identification and declarative elements state the owner, the nature of ownership, and conditions for visitations. These are done by direct expressions as well as very subtle means. Often these are placed due to the social conditioning, without knowing their purpose or significance.
Openings are smaller apertures then the surrounding walls and so are the visual and functional focus of a space. To support these patterns that are axially symmetrical, incorporating a mid accentuation (rise in a circular segment), pointers, triangulation, vertically elongated shapes, formations of upright lines are used here. These elements as topping treatments also accentuate the height scale. Other openings like windows and gaps also carry similar elements to create a balance of similarity.
Identification elements differentiate a building within a group or associate the building to a category. Identical doors and windows conjoin several, even differently styled buildings into a cohesive entity, a colony. Similarly in a mass housing colony, people treat their doors, windows, or curtains, extravagantly different from their neighbours.
The identification and declarative elements announce the nature of opening like, entry, exit, restricted access. These elements on the outer face of a building project a message for the passerby and visitors, and the same occasionally placed on the interior side, reinforce it for the departing visitor.
Identification and declarative elements mark the identity and status of the owner, nature and antiquity of the ownership. The occupier’s name, caste, educational qualifications, native place and titles are marked over the door. The name of the building, its date of commencement or occupation is the common mention. Antiquity of the building is associated with the main entrance by marking of important events that have taken place in the building.
The entrance door is not just the factual place of arrival but is a metaphoric point of entrance for everything, good or evil, friend or enemy, known or unknown. A visitor, and everything else, is expected to arrive at the main door, in spite of many other convenient points. In some way it is a point of fear, doubt and danger as much as it is of hope, fulfilment and safety. Means of physical and spiritual defence are placed here even though there may be more vulnerable locations in a building.
The visitor’s announcement and identification systems are placed near the formal entrance, such as: bells, knockers, buzzers, talking pipes, whistles, sirens, rattlers, vibrators, horns, intercoms, video recognition, surveillance systems.
Saturday, June 5, 2010
STAGE CURTAINS
Stage curtains are used to cover the performance as well as backstage areas from the audience. Plain opaque, translucent or scenic curtains and fixed curtained panels are used to divide the performance zone. Proscenium stages use many types of curtains than arena or thrust-out stages. The main or the first curtain on the audience side is called a grand drape, act curtain, house curtain, house drape or main drape. These are made of heavier fabric.
The curtains are either dropped downward or moved sideways. In smaller theatres curtains have two leaves which part away horizontally. In larger theatres the curtains are suspended from a batten or staff and dropped down. The curtains open vertically a guillotine reveal -after the execution device, by moving into the fly tower. The curtains are (flown in theatre terminology) dropped or raised up to a required height masking the upper section of the stage. The dropping is quickest way of lowering a curtain. A single curtain which moves horizontally is called a wipe. A tab or tableau curtain has two overlapping leaves which are lifted from the corners in a diagonal direction. This forms a draped effect when it is opened. Austrian, braille or contour curtain is lifted through several vertical runners attached the back of the curtain. The curtain has set of circular segmental folds. A Venetian or profile curtain is similar in appearance to the Austrian drape, but each individual pleat can be raised independently, allowing the curtain to be opened to various heights or configurations. A scrim is a curtain made of a gauze like fabric that seems to be opaque when lit from the front and transparent when backlit. A backdrop curtain is a painted or scenery curtain forming the back surface of the performance area. A cyclorama is a large white curtain that encircles the stage and provides a background.
The depth of the performance stage is divided into zones with curtains. Very often such curtains are gestural to denote a break or end of an act though most are made from black or other dark coloured, non light reflective materials. A curtain call is a curtsey or thanks call offered beyond the closed position of the curtain, but in front part of the stage. Side wings are fixed curtains to obscure side sections of a stage. Curtains or head-wings are used to hide the upper section stage properties such as the hanging gears, ropes and rolled or folded section of the curtains. Main curtains were first drop curtains but these required a heavy bottom staff. As this was hazardous, roll curtain was soon adopted. ‘Curtain was raised after the prologue and remained up throughout the performance, all scene shifting was in view of the audience. It was not until 1750 that an ‘act drop’ was used; previously, even intermezzi were performed in front of a full stage setting’.
The curtains are either dropped downward or moved sideways. In smaller theatres curtains have two leaves which part away horizontally. In larger theatres the curtains are suspended from a batten or staff and dropped down. The curtains open vertically a guillotine reveal -after the execution device, by moving into the fly tower. The curtains are (flown in theatre terminology) dropped or raised up to a required height masking the upper section of the stage. The dropping is quickest way of lowering a curtain. A single curtain which moves horizontally is called a wipe. A tab or tableau curtain has two overlapping leaves which are lifted from the corners in a diagonal direction. This forms a draped effect when it is opened. Austrian, braille or contour curtain is lifted through several vertical runners attached the back of the curtain. The curtain has set of circular segmental folds. A Venetian or profile curtain is similar in appearance to the Austrian drape, but each individual pleat can be raised independently, allowing the curtain to be opened to various heights or configurations. A scrim is a curtain made of a gauze like fabric that seems to be opaque when lit from the front and transparent when backlit. A backdrop curtain is a painted or scenery curtain forming the back surface of the performance area. A cyclorama is a large white curtain that encircles the stage and provides a background.
The depth of the performance stage is divided into zones with curtains. Very often such curtains are gestural to denote a break or end of an act though most are made from black or other dark coloured, non light reflective materials. A curtain call is a curtsey or thanks call offered beyond the closed position of the curtain, but in front part of the stage. Side wings are fixed curtains to obscure side sections of a stage. Curtains or head-wings are used to hide the upper section stage properties such as the hanging gears, ropes and rolled or folded section of the curtains. Main curtains were first drop curtains but these required a heavy bottom staff. As this was hazardous, roll curtain was soon adopted. ‘Curtain was raised after the prologue and remained up throughout the performance, all scene shifting was in view of the audience. It was not until 1750 that an ‘act drop’ was used; previously, even intermezzi were performed in front of a full stage setting’.
Sunday, May 30, 2010
Treatments over Opening Systems
Keywords: doors, windows, port holes, skylights, gaps and gates / architects / interior designers / users / outside, inside and within the opening systems single systems / layered systems / integrated systems.
Openings are specifically intentioned and architecturally well detailed systems. Yet such architectural entities need to be customised and personalized according to the location, orientation, interior use and the user. Openings also need to be multi purpose system with various mechanisms and appendages. The mechanisms endow wide range of functionality whereas the appendages as applique treatments make an opening a personal entity.
Openings such as doors, windows, port holes, skylights, gaps and gates require many different treatments on the exterior as well interior faces. The treatments work individually in their own, or concurrently satisfy a complex set of requirements. The treatments enhance or compensate what an opening offers. The treatments are temporary or permanent, applique or integrated, and spatially partial or whole.
Window treatments are provided, first by the building designers -the architects, then corrected and added upon by the interior designers, and lastly improvised by the users. In each case the domain of action though the same, the choices, opportunities and expertise are very different. A designer as a rationalist looks for a comprehensive or universal solution, whereas a user realises and improvises each solution individually. A designer outputs circumstantially best solution through technical excellence, whereas a user looks for an outstandingly different result.
Wherever generalized opening systems are used, additional corrective, compensative co-systems are required. Such add on systems help customize the stylized or universal designs. Such appendages take place outside, inside and also within the opening systems. They are made to exist so close to the opening system that in many instances, almost merge or integrate into the base system. Though some systems coexist by staying apart and only for that reasons are effective.
# One of the first opening treatment was the cover placed over a gap for security, privacy, illumination and climate control. However, a single cover was not adequate to meet all the needs. The cover was required to have different types materials’ qualities and formations. Needs like illumination and climatic control required the shutter to be directionally manipulable so as to adjust to their continuous variations. The shutter of an opening system can be opened-closed in many different ways (hinged, pivoted, sliding) and positioned to various degrees of opening, and these allow the shutter to offer many options.
Openings’ treatments also help to integrate the openings to the larger context like the architectural entity, the building, the room, space unit, or the facade. The integration of the opening is done at several levels: by merging or contrasting the opening, by establishing, enhancing, diluting, or deleting the relationship amongst the openings, and by endowing some characteristic features for scaling, proportioning, a theme or style.
Half circle arched openings have a problem that height of the arch is dependent over the width of the gap. For openings of different widths, if the head point is matched then the base (spring point of the arch) varies, and when the springing line is levelled then head point of the arch varies. This problem was solved in Gothic architecture by use of pointed arch, and from then on all openings, whatever their width had common head point level.
Openings have been treated by many different means. Openings in thick walls were deep-set cutting off the illumination. This was corrected by splaying the sides, sills and in some instances the heads. The splayed sides were lined with light-coloured materials to reduce the glare. Large openings were lattice covered to diffuse the illumination.
An opening’s treatment systems primarily come into being as a corrective addition to an existing opening. The add-on facilities are necessary improvisations due to the changed circumstances or use. Over a period of time many diverse treatments’ systems accumulate, each trying for appropriate siting. Layering is the simplest way of placing several such systems. But it prioritizes the layers by sequencing them. Such assimilation often takes away the individual capacity of a treatment system.
Openings’ treatment systems, which are on different sides of the opening unit, are commonly difficult to coalesce into a single system. Similarly opening treatment systems that can function only if they remain at some distance from the opening unit or other treatments, may not be amalgamated. Opening treatment systems providing optional choices may need to function as individual system and so cannot be mixed. Yet assimilation of openings’ treatments systems lead to natural efficiency and so it is vigorously pursued.
Solar radiation and road side noises are better handled on the outside face and privacy and internal acoustics are better managed from inside face. As needs are realized, technology becomes viable, and economics permits, several window treatment systems are devised. The various solutions coexist in the same spatial location, or function by appropriate sequencing in time. Fixed glazing is simpler and efficient in controlling heat, sound and moisture movement and so ventilation is better managed elsewhere and by some other means. There are many situations where current technologies do not offer comprehensive solutions.
Openings’ treatments initially develop as a series of layers: shading devices and storm shutters on the outer face, glazed shutters, safety-bars as mid opening facility, and the mosquito nett, sheer and opaque curtains as the interior layers.
The spatial distance between individual systems is eliminated to assimilate the layered systems. And the sub systems are programmed to become functional when required. When several sub systems have some similar bearing like for example ‘the orientation’ or have common elements like the size, form, location, procedures for installation or removal, trigger for being functional, the assimilation process begins.
Some openings' treatments alter the character of the original architectural opening systems. Interior Designers may not have the authority over continuance, alteration, addition or removal of an architectural feature. Interior Designers have to devise a scheme to rectify the situation but only from the inside face. Such an exercise often proves futile, inappropriate and costly. Opening’s treatment systems provided on the internal face are often perceptible through the glazing and manifests as a changed outlook of the exterior side. In such situations the Interior Designer has to operate in coordination with the architect or provide an appropriate solution.
Interiors are susceptible to very frequent changes, compared to exteriors. Interiors change, because occupants age and change physically as well as psychologically. Other conditions such as social, cultural and economic are ever variable. Interior opening treatments are add-on systems or are made of easily replaceable elements. For sensorial variety interiors require opening treatments of tactile -sensorial finishes, and such systems inherently have a shorter life span. Internal treatment systems instead of passing through a process of integration are replaced by a new comprehensive system.
Openings' treatments once set, either remain in the same state or allow lots of variations. Variations may be triggered manually or automatically through some electro mechanical devices, programming or stored instructions, chemical or biological changes. Some variations are natural, like seasonal changes in vines and shrubs, breeze induced creases and falls in curtains and draperies, ageing or weathering of wood, stone.
Openings' treatments, when designed as demountable and replaceable or add on systems, allow technological up gradation, style improvisation and choice variations. Such openings’ treatment systems have a shorter life span and no effort is made to achieve a comprehensive entity. Integrated openings' treatments are longer lasting.
Opening’s treatment as a masking element, frame the opening itself, and also the view through it. Openings that are proportionateley smaller require a larger surround or framing to highlight their presence. The surrounds are simpler linear forms but gates have cubical forms such as: towers, abutments, ramparts, bulwarks, bastions, bastilles, battlements, belvederes (chhatri), buttresses, campaniles (bell-tower), etc. to signify their presence. The openings also frame the view through them. Squarish gaps are round edged by overlapping patterns through lattices, ornamentation and glazing. Divisions in double hung sash windows were originally meant to use smaller glass pieces of inferior quality and clarity, but later continued for the sake of framing the view. The view through an opening is partially revealed, concealed or camouflaged through framing patterns, overlays and lattices, but most importantly by the quality of glazing.
Some of the negative factors that affect the design and conception of an opening’s treatment system are: elaborate styling, re-adaptation of past manners, use of one raw material to reflect the sensuality of another material, extensive or overuse of make-believe techniques, use of many materials and finishes, fast developing and extensive demand for novelty, demands generated by propaganda, over standardization, over simplification, non availability of replaceable components, low degree of designed replaceability.
Openings are specifically intentioned and architecturally well detailed systems. Yet such architectural entities need to be customised and personalized according to the location, orientation, interior use and the user. Openings also need to be multi purpose system with various mechanisms and appendages. The mechanisms endow wide range of functionality whereas the appendages as applique treatments make an opening a personal entity.
Openings such as doors, windows, port holes, skylights, gaps and gates require many different treatments on the exterior as well interior faces. The treatments work individually in their own, or concurrently satisfy a complex set of requirements. The treatments enhance or compensate what an opening offers. The treatments are temporary or permanent, applique or integrated, and spatially partial or whole.
Window treatments are provided, first by the building designers -the architects, then corrected and added upon by the interior designers, and lastly improvised by the users. In each case the domain of action though the same, the choices, opportunities and expertise are very different. A designer as a rationalist looks for a comprehensive or universal solution, whereas a user realises and improvises each solution individually. A designer outputs circumstantially best solution through technical excellence, whereas a user looks for an outstandingly different result.
Wherever generalized opening systems are used, additional corrective, compensative co-systems are required. Such add on systems help customize the stylized or universal designs. Such appendages take place outside, inside and also within the opening systems. They are made to exist so close to the opening system that in many instances, almost merge or integrate into the base system. Though some systems coexist by staying apart and only for that reasons are effective.
# One of the first opening treatment was the cover placed over a gap for security, privacy, illumination and climate control. However, a single cover was not adequate to meet all the needs. The cover was required to have different types materials’ qualities and formations. Needs like illumination and climatic control required the shutter to be directionally manipulable so as to adjust to their continuous variations. The shutter of an opening system can be opened-closed in many different ways (hinged, pivoted, sliding) and positioned to various degrees of opening, and these allow the shutter to offer many options.
Openings’ treatments also help to integrate the openings to the larger context like the architectural entity, the building, the room, space unit, or the facade. The integration of the opening is done at several levels: by merging or contrasting the opening, by establishing, enhancing, diluting, or deleting the relationship amongst the openings, and by endowing some characteristic features for scaling, proportioning, a theme or style.
Half circle arched openings have a problem that height of the arch is dependent over the width of the gap. For openings of different widths, if the head point is matched then the base (spring point of the arch) varies, and when the springing line is levelled then head point of the arch varies. This problem was solved in Gothic architecture by use of pointed arch, and from then on all openings, whatever their width had common head point level.
Openings have been treated by many different means. Openings in thick walls were deep-set cutting off the illumination. This was corrected by splaying the sides, sills and in some instances the heads. The splayed sides were lined with light-coloured materials to reduce the glare. Large openings were lattice covered to diffuse the illumination.
An opening’s treatment systems primarily come into being as a corrective addition to an existing opening. The add-on facilities are necessary improvisations due to the changed circumstances or use. Over a period of time many diverse treatments’ systems accumulate, each trying for appropriate siting. Layering is the simplest way of placing several such systems. But it prioritizes the layers by sequencing them. Such assimilation often takes away the individual capacity of a treatment system.
Openings’ treatment systems, which are on different sides of the opening unit, are commonly difficult to coalesce into a single system. Similarly opening treatment systems that can function only if they remain at some distance from the opening unit or other treatments, may not be amalgamated. Opening treatment systems providing optional choices may need to function as individual system and so cannot be mixed. Yet assimilation of openings’ treatments systems lead to natural efficiency and so it is vigorously pursued.
Solar radiation and road side noises are better handled on the outside face and privacy and internal acoustics are better managed from inside face. As needs are realized, technology becomes viable, and economics permits, several window treatment systems are devised. The various solutions coexist in the same spatial location, or function by appropriate sequencing in time. Fixed glazing is simpler and efficient in controlling heat, sound and moisture movement and so ventilation is better managed elsewhere and by some other means. There are many situations where current technologies do not offer comprehensive solutions.
Openings’ treatments initially develop as a series of layers: shading devices and storm shutters on the outer face, glazed shutters, safety-bars as mid opening facility, and the mosquito nett, sheer and opaque curtains as the interior layers.
The spatial distance between individual systems is eliminated to assimilate the layered systems. And the sub systems are programmed to become functional when required. When several sub systems have some similar bearing like for example ‘the orientation’ or have common elements like the size, form, location, procedures for installation or removal, trigger for being functional, the assimilation process begins.
Some openings' treatments alter the character of the original architectural opening systems. Interior Designers may not have the authority over continuance, alteration, addition or removal of an architectural feature. Interior Designers have to devise a scheme to rectify the situation but only from the inside face. Such an exercise often proves futile, inappropriate and costly. Opening’s treatment systems provided on the internal face are often perceptible through the glazing and manifests as a changed outlook of the exterior side. In such situations the Interior Designer has to operate in coordination with the architect or provide an appropriate solution.
Interiors are susceptible to very frequent changes, compared to exteriors. Interiors change, because occupants age and change physically as well as psychologically. Other conditions such as social, cultural and economic are ever variable. Interior opening treatments are add-on systems or are made of easily replaceable elements. For sensorial variety interiors require opening treatments of tactile -sensorial finishes, and such systems inherently have a shorter life span. Internal treatment systems instead of passing through a process of integration are replaced by a new comprehensive system.
Openings' treatments once set, either remain in the same state or allow lots of variations. Variations may be triggered manually or automatically through some electro mechanical devices, programming or stored instructions, chemical or biological changes. Some variations are natural, like seasonal changes in vines and shrubs, breeze induced creases and falls in curtains and draperies, ageing or weathering of wood, stone.
Openings' treatments, when designed as demountable and replaceable or add on systems, allow technological up gradation, style improvisation and choice variations. Such openings’ treatment systems have a shorter life span and no effort is made to achieve a comprehensive entity. Integrated openings' treatments are longer lasting.
Opening’s treatment as a masking element, frame the opening itself, and also the view through it. Openings that are proportionateley smaller require a larger surround or framing to highlight their presence. The surrounds are simpler linear forms but gates have cubical forms such as: towers, abutments, ramparts, bulwarks, bastions, bastilles, battlements, belvederes (chhatri), buttresses, campaniles (bell-tower), etc. to signify their presence. The openings also frame the view through them. Squarish gaps are round edged by overlapping patterns through lattices, ornamentation and glazing. Divisions in double hung sash windows were originally meant to use smaller glass pieces of inferior quality and clarity, but later continued for the sake of framing the view. The view through an opening is partially revealed, concealed or camouflaged through framing patterns, overlays and lattices, but most importantly by the quality of glazing.
Some of the negative factors that affect the design and conception of an opening’s treatment system are: elaborate styling, re-adaptation of past manners, use of one raw material to reflect the sensuality of another material, extensive or overuse of make-believe techniques, use of many materials and finishes, fast developing and extensive demand for novelty, demands generated by propaganda, over standardization, over simplification, non availability of replaceable components, low degree of designed replaceability.
Sunday, February 21, 2010
CLIMATE AND OUR BODY
9 Climate and our Body
Climate affects our body system very profoundly. The effects are primarily sensed by the skin. Five types of sensations are involved with the skin. The Touch-Pressure (mehanic-o receptors), Cold-Warmth feeling (thermo receptors), Pain and Itch. Cold is a consequence of contraction of blood vessels and warmth is felt due to dilation of blood vessels; both are felt by the same receptors.
Our body gains heat from the atmosphere and also dissipates excess heat to it, to maintain a thermal equilibrium. The human body maintains itself at an average temperature of 98.4̊ F / 37̊ C. There are many minor variations in body temperature, which are considered normal. Body temperature is highest in the evening and lowest in the morning, within a range of 1.5̊ F / 1̊ C. Infants have a very imperfect mechanism for regulation of body temperature. A fit of crying may elevate and a cold wash may lower the body temperature. Aged persons have a low metabolism and so maintain a lower body temperature. It takes much longer for an aged person to gain or dissipate body heat. Female body temperature is slightly lower than male. The type food one takes affect the body temperature. High protein foods increase the body temperature. The act ingestion and food digestion raises the body temperature. Exercise increases the body temperature, because only 25 % of muscular energy is converted into mechanical work, rest comes out as body heat. Atmospheric conditions like, atmospheric temperature, humidity and movement of air, affect the efficiency of heat exchange from the body, and so the body temperature.
There are three types of heat generating processes in the human body. Conversion of food matter into useful energy is a continuous heat generating process. Muscular activities like even sedentary work or sleeping, are heat generating processes. Lastly, certain infections and dysfunctions within the body, elevate or lower the body temperature by extra ordinary rate of heat generation or weakened heat dissipation mechanism. Of all the energy produced in the body only 20 % is utilized, rest 80 % is surplus heat.
Normal skin temperature is between 31̊ and 34̊C. As the air temperature approaches the skin temperature heat loss from the body gradually decreases, vasomotor regulation will increase the body temperature to 34̊C to maintain the heat loss, but if air temperature is higher, the convective heat loss may not work.
As long as temperature of the opposite surface or object (sun, fire, radiator) is below skin temperature, the body can lose heat by radiation. But once it reaches an equilibrium occurs, body will rather gain heat by radiation.
When the convective process is inoperative and radiation heat gain is positive, the body can maintain the thermal balance by evaporation. Evaporation can occur if air has velocity and appropriate humidity (low). Even in case of very high humidity conditions a high velocity air can remove the humidity.
A person exposed to constant high rate of sweating and permanent vaso-dilation can have lot of physical strain with loss of work efficiency.
The body must not only release all the excess heat that is generated from within the body, but all the excess heat as gained from the environment. Heat is lost from the body by radiation (60 %), evaporation (25 %), by convection and conduction (15 %).
Heat is lost through radiation, if there is a difference in temperature of opposing surfaces. Evaporation heat loss is controlled by the level of humidity in the air (dryer the air, faster the evaporation), temperature of the air, body and rate of air movement. Body dissipates heat through evaporation by perspiration, sweat and exhalation of air. Convection occurs when the air in the vicinity of skin becomes hot, expands, decreases in density, and elevates to allow cooler air in its place. Rate of heat convection from body depends on the difference in temperatures (skin & surrounding air) and rate of air movement. Conduction depends on the difference between the body temperature and the contact object.
The body continues to accelerate or decelerate the heat loss till it reaches an equilibrium. Heat loss is accelerated by several body functions like perspiration, high transfer of heat to the skin by increased blood circulation (vaso-dilatation). When these prove to be insufficient, sweating occurs. In hot climates the heat loss rate is lower due to unfavourable atmospheric conditions. But by lowering of the body heat generation (lower metabolic and muscular activity), the net amount of heat to be dissipated can be reduced. But this requires some time to take effect. On immediate basis when the heat loss is not balanced with heat gain `heat stroke' occurs. In cold climates the heat loss is higher, so heat balance is achieved by conservation of heat and by appropriate heat gain. Heat production is raised by certain reflex secretions (adrenaline, thyroxine), higher intake of food (increased metabolic activity) by reflex shivering (muscular exercise) and by sufficient insulative protection. The body may control the heat loss by vaso-constriction (lower blood supply), and depressed sweating.
Many physical, chemical and bacterial agents disturb the heat regulation mechanism and cause fever. These may be due to increased heat production or reduced heat loss, or both.
In reptiles and amphibia heat regulation mechanism is absent. Their body temperature rises or falls with the atmospheric temperature. Hence they are called cold blooded animals. In abnormal temperature conditions they regulate the body temperature by suitable habitat. In winter they go deep into burrows or in hibernation (minimize the metabolic heat generation). Mammals and birds are known as hot blooded creatures, because the heat regulation mechanism is well developed, and they are able to maintain a level of body temperature.
Comfort of an occupant in an environment also depends on subjective variables or individual factors:
1. Acclimatization: exposed to new conditions a person shortly (approx. 30 days) acclimatizes himself.
2. Age and sex: Older persons take much longer to adjust to temperature change, and as a result slightly higher temperature. Women also have slower metabolic rate than men so prefer a little higher temperature.
3. States of health:
Activity heat output in watts
Sleeping 70
Sitting, typing 130/160
Standing, working at a bench 160/190
Walking 220/290
Digging 440/580
Sustained hard work 580/700
BMR : Basal metabolism rate: It is the amount of heat given out by a person is awake, but physically and mentally at rest in a comfortable condition of atmospheric temperature, pressure and humidity, 12/18 hours after a normal meal.
Normal BMR in an adult male is 40 Cal per sq. mt. of a body surface per hour. (females 37 Cal /sq. mt.). Average surface area of an adult male is 1.8 sq mts. In children BMR is high and as one ages it decreases. This is due to the fact that children have high surface area compared to their low weight. Generally higher the surface area greater is heat loss, but a large body also generates greater amount of heat.
In colder climates BMR is high to compensate the high rate of heat loss. In tropical climates BMR is purposely lowered by the body to retard the heat generation.
Muscular and energetic people have a high level BMR compared to people living a sedentary life. Nature of diet affects the BMR. High protein foods have high BMR. After 2 hours of food ingestion BMR rises and maintains the high level for 4 hours.
Ductless glands (adrenal medulla, adrenal cortex, thyroxine, anterior pituitary and insulin) discharges increase the BMR. Any dysfunction of these glands affects the level of BMR.
Moderate pressure changes (sea level to hilly regions) does not change the BMR. But a fall of pressure by ½ the normal barometer pressure (which occurs in very high mountaineering or in high altitude non pressure air craft flights) reduces the BMR. However increase in oxygen pressure (anesthesia) does not raise the BMR.
For every 1 F rise in body temperature, as in case of fever, raises the BMR by 7 %. This is due to the fact that high body temperature increases the chemical processes of the body and so the BMR.
Light exercise + 30 to 40 %
Walking + 50 to 60 %
Severe Exercise + 100 %
Mental work (maths problem) + 3 to 4 %
Strong emotions + 5 to 10 %
Sleep - 10 to 13 %
Conditions which increase the BMR
Hyper thyroidism + 100 %
Fever
Diabetes insipidus
Leukemia + 20 to 80 %
Conditions which lower the BMR
Starvation, malnutrition
Hypo thyroidism
Addison's disease
Lipoid nephrosis.
Climate affects our body system very profoundly. The effects are primarily sensed by the skin. Five types of sensations are involved with the skin. The Touch-Pressure (mehanic-o receptors), Cold-Warmth feeling (thermo receptors), Pain and Itch. Cold is a consequence of contraction of blood vessels and warmth is felt due to dilation of blood vessels; both are felt by the same receptors.
Our body functions as a thermo equilibrium system. The thermal bearing capacity has upper and lower limits. The pain occurs at the upper limit of 52̊ C /126̊ F and has a lower limit of 3̊ C / 37̊ F. The Optimum or the comfort level temperature depends on the level of acclimatization. In certain acute work conditions like mines, metal smelting plants, textile plants, cold storage, the level of efficiency or productivity depend on the endurance level and adaptability of the body. A body may endure or adopt to certain abnormal conditions for a period of time, but there may occur side effects. The side effects may be realized in a different form and at a different time.
Our body gains heat from the atmosphere and also dissipates excess heat to it, to maintain a thermal equilibrium. The human body maintains itself at an average temperature of 98.4̊ F / 37̊ C. There are many minor variations in body temperature, which are considered normal. Body temperature is highest in the evening and lowest in the morning, within a range of 1.5̊ F / 1̊ C. Infants have a very imperfect mechanism for regulation of body temperature. A fit of crying may elevate and a cold wash may lower the body temperature. Aged persons have a low metabolism and so maintain a lower body temperature. It takes much longer for an aged person to gain or dissipate body heat. Female body temperature is slightly lower than male. The type food one takes affect the body temperature. High protein foods increase the body temperature. The act ingestion and food digestion raises the body temperature. Exercise increases the body temperature, because only 25 % of muscular energy is converted into mechanical work, rest comes out as body heat. Atmospheric conditions like, atmospheric temperature, humidity and movement of air, affect the efficiency of heat exchange from the body, and so the body temperature.
There are three types of heat generating processes in the human body. Conversion of food matter into useful energy is a continuous heat generating process. Muscular activities like even sedentary work or sleeping, are heat generating processes. Lastly, certain infections and dysfunctions within the body, elevate or lower the body temperature by extra ordinary rate of heat generation or weakened heat dissipation mechanism. Of all the energy produced in the body only 20 % is utilized, rest 80 % is surplus heat.
Normal skin temperature is between 31̊ and 34̊C. As the air temperature approaches the skin temperature heat loss from the body gradually decreases, vasomotor regulation will increase the body temperature to 34̊C to maintain the heat loss, but if air temperature is higher, the convective heat loss may not work.
As long as temperature of the opposite surface or object (sun, fire, radiator) is below skin temperature, the body can lose heat by radiation. But once it reaches an equilibrium occurs, body will rather gain heat by radiation.
When the convective process is inoperative and radiation heat gain is positive, the body can maintain the thermal balance by evaporation. Evaporation can occur if air has velocity and appropriate humidity (low). Even in case of very high humidity conditions a high velocity air can remove the humidity.
A person exposed to constant high rate of sweating and permanent vaso-dilation can have lot of physical strain with loss of work efficiency.
The body must not only release all the excess heat that is generated from within the body, but all the excess heat as gained from the environment. Heat is lost from the body by radiation (60 %), evaporation (25 %), by convection and conduction (15 %).
Heat is lost through radiation, if there is a difference in temperature of opposing surfaces. Evaporation heat loss is controlled by the level of humidity in the air (dryer the air, faster the evaporation), temperature of the air, body and rate of air movement. Body dissipates heat through evaporation by perspiration, sweat and exhalation of air. Convection occurs when the air in the vicinity of skin becomes hot, expands, decreases in density, and elevates to allow cooler air in its place. Rate of heat convection from body depends on the difference in temperatures (skin & surrounding air) and rate of air movement. Conduction depends on the difference between the body temperature and the contact object.
The body continues to accelerate or decelerate the heat loss till it reaches an equilibrium. Heat loss is accelerated by several body functions like perspiration, high transfer of heat to the skin by increased blood circulation (vaso-dilatation). When these prove to be insufficient, sweating occurs. In hot climates the heat loss rate is lower due to unfavourable atmospheric conditions. But by lowering of the body heat generation (lower metabolic and muscular activity), the net amount of heat to be dissipated can be reduced. But this requires some time to take effect. On immediate basis when the heat loss is not balanced with heat gain `heat stroke' occurs. In cold climates the heat loss is higher, so heat balance is achieved by conservation of heat and by appropriate heat gain. Heat production is raised by certain reflex secretions (adrenaline, thyroxine), higher intake of food (increased metabolic activity) by reflex shivering (muscular exercise) and by sufficient insulative protection. The body may control the heat loss by vaso-constriction (lower blood supply), and depressed sweating.
Many physical, chemical and bacterial agents disturb the heat regulation mechanism and cause fever. These may be due to increased heat production or reduced heat loss, or both.
In reptiles and amphibia heat regulation mechanism is absent. Their body temperature rises or falls with the atmospheric temperature. Hence they are called cold blooded animals. In abnormal temperature conditions they regulate the body temperature by suitable habitat. In winter they go deep into burrows or in hibernation (minimize the metabolic heat generation). Mammals and birds are known as hot blooded creatures, because the heat regulation mechanism is well developed, and they are able to maintain a level of body temperature.
Comfort of an occupant in an environment also depends on subjective variables or individual factors:
1. Acclimatization: exposed to new conditions a person shortly (approx. 30 days) acclimatizes himself.
2. Age and sex: Older persons take much longer to adjust to temperature change, and as a result slightly higher temperature. Women also have slower metabolic rate than men so prefer a little higher temperature.
3. States of health:
Activity heat output in watts
Sleeping 70
Sitting, typing 130/160
Standing, working at a bench 160/190
Walking 220/290
Digging 440/580
Sustained hard work 580/700
BMR : Basal metabolism rate: It is the amount of heat given out by a person is awake, but physically and mentally at rest in a comfortable condition of atmospheric temperature, pressure and humidity, 12/18 hours after a normal meal.
Normal BMR in an adult male is 40 Cal per sq. mt. of a body surface per hour. (females 37 Cal /sq. mt.). Average surface area of an adult male is 1.8 sq mts. In children BMR is high and as one ages it decreases. This is due to the fact that children have high surface area compared to their low weight. Generally higher the surface area greater is heat loss, but a large body also generates greater amount of heat.
In colder climates BMR is high to compensate the high rate of heat loss. In tropical climates BMR is purposely lowered by the body to retard the heat generation.
Muscular and energetic people have a high level BMR compared to people living a sedentary life. Nature of diet affects the BMR. High protein foods have high BMR. After 2 hours of food ingestion BMR rises and maintains the high level for 4 hours.
Ductless glands (adrenal medulla, adrenal cortex, thyroxine, anterior pituitary and insulin) discharges increase the BMR. Any dysfunction of these glands affects the level of BMR.
Moderate pressure changes (sea level to hilly regions) does not change the BMR. But a fall of pressure by ½ the normal barometer pressure (which occurs in very high mountaineering or in high altitude non pressure air craft flights) reduces the BMR. However increase in oxygen pressure (anesthesia) does not raise the BMR.
For every 1 F rise in body temperature, as in case of fever, raises the BMR by 7 %. This is due to the fact that high body temperature increases the chemical processes of the body and so the BMR.
Light exercise + 30 to 40 %
Walking + 50 to 60 %
Severe Exercise + 100 %
Mental work (maths problem) + 3 to 4 %
Strong emotions + 5 to 10 %
Sleep - 10 to 13 %
Conditions which increase the BMR
Hyper thyroidism + 100 %
Fever
Diabetes insipidus
Leukemia + 20 to 80 %
Conditions which lower the BMR
Starvation, malnutrition
Hypo thyroidism
Addison's disease
Lipoid nephrosis.
Friday, December 18, 2009
DESIGN APPROAHES
There are many ways a Design is created. A design emerges from some of the obvious conditions such as:
- Is it a nascent effort (first ever) or routine application ?
- Which are the technologies involved ?
- What is the desired nature of output ?
- What are the human and other resources available ?
- Can the design be substantially achieved through personal effort or will require input from others as well ?
- What is the scale of detail and how is it to be communicated to the executors of design ?
- Which are the presentation tools and communication methods available ?
Yet one the most important factor that affects the Quality of Design is the Technic of Design or the Design Process.
Some of the important Traditional Design approaches are detailed here: These traditional design approaches are not exclusive in themselves or comparable.
1 Holistic approach
2 Component approach
3 Redesign or Re-engineering
4 Concurrent engineering or Simultaneous design.
Other New Design processes are discussed briefly in the later section of this note.
A Systems Thinking
B Conservation of Resources
C Bio-Mimicry
1 Holistic Approach
Design effort that conceives a complete and self-contained system to begin with is called a Holistic Approach (Whole to the Part). Holistic approach entails germination of an intuition into a complete system. Such creations are very personal, akin to a work of art, often not functional, Holistic creations are one time achievement and often not reproducible. Holistic approach is useful in areas where sufficient information is unavailable or there is a distinct disinclination to search for the detail.
Holistic approach is inadvertently followed when inspiration rather than logic causes a design. A holistic conception and its execution, if distanced in time, some recall is required forcing documentation of the design. With documentation the holistic creation may not remain as wholesome.
Design effort that conceives a complete and self-contained system to begin with is called a Holistic Approach (Whole to the Part). Holistic approach entails germination of an intuition into a complete system. Such creations are very personal, akin to a work of art, often not functional, Holistic creations are one time achievement and often not reproducible. Holistic approach is useful in areas where sufficient information is unavailable or there is a distinct disinclination to search for the detail.
Holistic approach is inadvertently followed when inspiration rather than logic causes a design. A holistic conception and its execution, if distanced in time, some recall is required forcing documentation of the design. With documentation the holistic creation may not remain as wholesome.
- The term holism was introduced by the South African statesman Jan Smuts in his 1926 book, Holism and Evolution. Smuts defined holism as the tendency in nature to form wholes that are greater than the sum of the parts through creative evolution.
- The whole is more than the sum of its parts -Aristotle. Holism (from holos, a Greek word meaning all, entire, total) is the idea that all the properties of a given system (biological, chemical, social, economic, mental, linguistic, etc.) cannot be determined or explained by the sum of its component parts alone. Instead, the system as a whole determines in an important way how the parts behave. Reductionism is sometimes seen as the opposite of holism. In science reductionism is seen as a complex system that can be explained by reduction to its fundamental parts. Chemistry is reducible to physics, and biology is reducible to chemistry and physics, similarly psychology and sociology are reducible to biology, etc. Some other consider holism and reductionism to be complementary viewpoints to offer a proper account of a given system.
2 Component Approach:
A complex entity is perceived, as if composed of several subsystems each of which is already substantially real and functional. One is required to solve the inter relationship of subsystems, and while doing so, upgrade the original subsystem or possibly select a new subsystem. Component approach (parts to the whole) provides systems that are reliable, but usually traditional. Where situations demand a radically different or a novel solution, Parts to the Whole design approach is often inadequate. The component approach requires one to have complete over view of the system, and be able to recognize the value of the component in the whole. This is rather simplified by recognizing the time and space extent of the subsystems. The components dwelling or manifesting within such domains may not have any affectations beyond their domain boundaries, so can be dealt easily.
A complex entity is perceived, as if composed of several subsystems each of which is already substantially real and functional. One is required to solve the inter relationship of subsystems, and while doing so, upgrade the original subsystem or possibly select a new subsystem. Component approach (parts to the whole) provides systems that are reliable, but usually traditional. Where situations demand a radically different or a novel solution, Parts to the Whole design approach is often inadequate. The component approach requires one to have complete over view of the system, and be able to recognize the value of the component in the whole. This is rather simplified by recognizing the time and space extent of the subsystems. The components dwelling or manifesting within such domains may not have any affectations beyond their domain boundaries, so can be dealt easily.
3 Redesign or Re-engineering:
Most products, however claimed to be original, are only improvised version of some existing thing or a Redesign. This is a well-accepted design approach for products' development. It has perhaps, a little less relevance in design processes of unique or first ever systems, such as Civil structures and Architectural entities.
- Japan perfected the process and achieved distinctive product design solutions in early 1960s. Sony music system Walkman has been evolved through such efforts. At that point of time taped music system were very bulky or heavy weight. To enjoy the hi-fi sound quality outdoors, one had to have large sized twin speakers, heavy batteries for power supply, and spool type tapes. A Walkman helped redesigning of these subsystems and a completely innovative product was launched.
Manufacturers need to design new products and launch them before a competitor can do. Redesign or Re-engineering is used for product development for Automobiles, `white goods', office equipments, etc. Markets are continuously surveyed to find out the features that make certain products to be leaders in the market. An attempt is made to improvise and absorb such features.
As one is operating with a successful subsystem, the chances of its failure are less. Redesign generates a product in its new Avatar. Redesign addresses to deficiencies of aging technologies, fast changing tastes and varying operative conditions of products. It gives very specific clues which new features are accepted and which are the emergent technologies. It also allows faster incorporation of new technologies as new subsystems being offered by inventors and innovators are continuously sought and included. New products are launched with minimum changes to existing tools and plant. Workers only need to upgrade their skills, and new employees or new training schedules are not required. The improvised product has slight familiarity with the existing range, and as a result the comfort of acceptance is high.
Redesign practitioners operate with notions that:
- A whole system is divisible into subsystems, each of which can be improvised.
- These subsystems can be improved in-house, but technologically better solutions are being developed by others, so identify them and collaborate to resource such emergent solutions.
- It is more efficient to redesign or re-engineer a known system, then go into basic research to discover a new entity.
- A product of redesign process has fewer chances of failure, because one is improvising upon a working system.
- Transfer or absorption of new Technologies is very fast.
Organizations, that deal in very competitive markets prefer redesign processes as it allows them to continuously update their product with minimum of risks.
4 Concurrent Engineering or Simultaneous Designing:
Nominally large projects are divided into several task modules, each of which were till recently handled sequentially. Experts or team working in their own domain used to handle the problem by freezing it (status quo). The solution was then transmitted to the project leader. Every time a major change was proposed all other modules had to be reset, forcing rethink and rework. To avoid such problems, project designing is now handled Concurrently or Simultaneously.
To overcome the delays of sequential working, several teams are formed to handle tasks concurrently (to work in parallel mode). For these, the organization must have necessary resources, alternatively the work is outsourced to external experts. The concept of concurrent engineering or simultaneous designing requires fast communication channels for live or virtual linkage. Design changes are immediately transmitted both ways, to the project leader as well as teams handling specific tasks. Very often the design process is in a public domain like Internet world wide web through which anyone can contribute ideas, products, etc. CAD files, spreadsheets and databases are structured to be multi access document systems.
- For example, a significant design change in a structural design of a bridge span will affect design of many other sub systems. It could mean change of loads on the columns, foundation structures, scaffolding requirements etc. Each of these would have new design parameters, but with electronic drafting tools and instant communication means, all design changes can be apparent to all the concerned agencies, immediately.
- A system can be perceived as consisting of several dependent or independent subsystems. If the nature of the dependency can be defined, then the subsystems can be dealt by the Same Team rescheduling it to a date before or later (sequentially) or by Different Teams simultaneously (in parallel).
- Association of different teams primarily allows superior technological input. Different teams working in Parallel Mode offer faster a throughput. Teams located in different time zones though do not fully operate in parallel mode, offer advantage of local technologies and 24x7 daylight working hours.
- Virtual parallel processing of projects occur in many different ways. Database, spreadsheet, CAD drawings and other documents can be altered by many different users, with each version or layer identified separately and a possibility of assimilating (merging) it selectively.
- Current days high speed virtual communication (broad band internet, video conferencing) allow changes to be proposed, confirmed and accommodated in real time mode.
- The design evolution becomes participatory. It does not remain restricted to hired or appointed experts, but becomes a public domain affair with inventors, innovators and other free-lancers offering novel ideas. Such offers are usually on a try it-like it-buy it, basis, i.e., without any consultancy charges or purchase-payment obligations.
During and post world war-II period several New Design Approaches have evolved. Some of the important trigger factors are:
- Shift from National or Individual dominant producer/ supplier Standards to Industry standards ir International consensus standards (such ISO = International Standards Organization).
- Shift from traditional material + procedure specifications to Performance specifications, mainly for Government purchases.
- Quality Conscience through adherence to voluntary declarations through ISO 900x, 1400x, etc. It also includes declaration of social and other obligations for all products, services and actions.
- Provision of Guarantees and warranties of assembled or combined systems by third party professionals or audit and evaluation organizations, rather then by the designers or planners of the projects.
- The role of media and NGOs in documentation, active reportage and proactive participation beyond the Governmental controls.
A Systems Thinking:
One of the first one to emerge as a result of world war II experiences and later the development of Management Sciences is the Systems Thinking (see chapter on Systems Thinking). A systems approach considers an object or human activity as an exclusive or dependent part or sub-system of a larger system. The exclusivity of the of a part is not real, but an intended isolation to study and design the subsystem. The subsystems are accelerated or decelerated in either time or space, or both to mark the likely areas of failure. Systems Thinking being an all inclusive approach, naturally considers operation or working of the creation and its final dissolution.
B Conservation of Resources:
It also in some manner includes Minimalism, miniaturization, rationalization and simplification of everything. This is not new thinking, it has been part of mankind forever, but as a Design Conscience it helps in creating better solutions in a new perspective. This approach was favoured due the development in electronics.
C Bio-Mimicry:
Bio mimicry presupposes that all things in nature are superior and work efficiently. It also accepts that natural things have complex working and many areas are in grey zones, that is not easily comprehensible. But the approach assumes that it is matter of time for grey zones to clear out, and all bio-mimicked things will have greater efficiency and relevance.
Tuesday, December 15, 2009
SPATIAL CHARACTER OF THE WINDOWS
from Interior Components and Systems : Windows -- http://www.gautamshah.in
Windows are surface elements, but a surface that is penetrable. As a surface element it has a great presence on both exterior and interior sides. A window is fairly a complex entity against the comparatively simplistic wall. Its surface never remains static. Its shutters are shifted to different positions. The contextual conditions like climate, illumination, distance and angle of observation and the purpose of use are continuously varying and in turn reshape the windows’ perceptive form. The external changes are reflected as a reverse -a mirror image in the glazing surface, and the interiors are seen through it. A window, on a single picture frame, simultaneously reveals the changes occurring in the interiors as well as exteriors. The dynamism of the window gets enhanced further by the framing, masking and filtration of the perception.
A window is like a membrane, which may not permit one to go through it, but it allows to stretch out the sensorial faculties. We see, smell, listen and feel the other side through the window. The extension to the other side of the window through the sensorial faculties is always short and casual. The frugality experience stimulates us to go across it, albeit by other means. A person on the outside perceives the safety in the interior, and the one in a bounded space sees the variety of experiences available outside. Doors are dilemmas, either go out or remain in, but a window provides no such options.
Windows have been used for opening out the interior spaces or for bringing in the exteriors. The historical window with opaque glazing of heavily coloured pot glass was extremely colourful but static. As the glass became thinner, lighter in colour the changes in outside levels of illumination began to be noticed on the interior face. This was aided by use of water white Cristallo glass. Interiors seemed much more natural, and attuned to the outside changes in light intensity. Till 19th C windows were vivid elements in an otherwise static exterior or interior surface. From outside the Cristallo was a dull opalescent surface, but clear glass with better casting, polishing and fire finishing began to be iridescent. The glass was recognised as having two distinctly different faces. Iridescent on the outside face due to reflections and a ‘water-white’ flawlessly clear and non glossy surface on the interior face. Corbusier used the opaque iridescence of the exterior surface to juxtapose the exterior masonry surface. But FLW used the deep shadows to eliminate the exterior iridescence and colour staining to break interior clarity. Mies used the exterior mirror like gloss to reflect the changes occurring in the surroundings simultaneously showing up the interior, and thereby reduce the massiveness of the built-form. Window glass is now often used to mix the realities of interior and exterior happenings on a very large joint-less single plane. The mix creates a very vivid object, like a water body reflecting the sky and the floor concurrently. Metalized opaque glass belies the two-way transparency of a see-through element.
Wall to wall glass openings dissolve one or many sides of a volumetric space, reshaping its perceptive size, scale and extent. The spatial illusion becomes more intriguing when such a large reflective glass surface is used.
We are conditioned to expect certain spatial effects in a space. A narrow space visually gets widened by a glass opening, though functionally remains the same. Skylights and clerestories add ‘lightness’ to the space. Lights such as roof holes focus the attention. Openings, depending on their location and nature redefine the space configuration. The stratification of view to the outside offers different scale to the space. Significantly bright areas highlight the details, and so are perceived and registered, more effectively then darker zones. A window becomes an element for changing a space, intentionally and accidentally.
Windows are furrowed gaps into an otherwise solid mass. The depth is highlighted due to the dark interior, and shadows cast by strong and directional light. The shadows as a form creating element was very well exploited by L. Kahn in his Asian buildings. The same effect at a micro scale and in repetition creates a lattice used in Indian Architecture. Windows like bay, bow, Mashrabiya and oriel have been used to enlarge interior spaces and also to correct the interior shape of the space. Zarokhas add to the interior space but have also been used to undulate the exteriors.
Masking has been very commonly used to change the character of the windows. Greek and Roman architecture subdued the openings as a secondary and less visible layer. Romanesque windows once again came to the surface, but openings were framed by the semi circular arch. Coordinating several windows was a concern as the height of the rounded arch was defined by the width of the opening. Gothic architecture solved the problems of geometric composition by pointed arch. It also created a system of subdividing the window opening through mullions, transoms and glazing bars. The window opening was masked by traceried patterns. Window masking became an effective tool to overcome the deficiencies of glass, size, clarity and impurities. The deficiencies made the windows subservient entity of the load-bearing structure. Glass houses, orangeries, etc. allowed windows to define a space without the use of a wall. The need for very large and deep sun lit spaces for bus depots, railway stations, markets, and factories redefined the windows spatial nature.
Framing is a property of all openings. Openings have their sides and mid members within the view cone depending on the point of observation. Palladio masked and framed the exterior face of the opening. The double-hung sash windows did the same on both, exterior and interior face. Framing is now used as an inevitable joint management system, and but often made imperceptible. Stratification (window openings’ position @ low, mid or higher level with reference to height of the user or the task plane) is an important ergonomic parameter that affects the spatial perception.
Transparency is a quality of the glass, and the most important aspect of the surface of the opening. A window opening in the form of a glass curtain wall or shop front, shows up the space in its exterior surface configuration, and also the spatial depths of its interiors. The simultaneity of the exterior and interior spaces adds to the dilemma of the physical reality vs the virtual reality.
Windows are surface elements, but a surface that is penetrable. As a surface element it has a great presence on both exterior and interior sides. A window is fairly a complex entity against the comparatively simplistic wall. Its surface never remains static. Its shutters are shifted to different positions. The contextual conditions like climate, illumination, distance and angle of observation and the purpose of use are continuously varying and in turn reshape the windows’ perceptive form. The external changes are reflected as a reverse -a mirror image in the glazing surface, and the interiors are seen through it. A window, on a single picture frame, simultaneously reveals the changes occurring in the interiors as well as exteriors. The dynamism of the window gets enhanced further by the framing, masking and filtration of the perception.
A window is like a membrane, which may not permit one to go through it, but it allows to stretch out the sensorial faculties. We see, smell, listen and feel the other side through the window. The extension to the other side of the window through the sensorial faculties is always short and casual. The frugality experience stimulates us to go across it, albeit by other means. A person on the outside perceives the safety in the interior, and the one in a bounded space sees the variety of experiences available outside. Doors are dilemmas, either go out or remain in, but a window provides no such options.
Windows have been used for opening out the interior spaces or for bringing in the exteriors. The historical window with opaque glazing of heavily coloured pot glass was extremely colourful but static. As the glass became thinner, lighter in colour the changes in outside levels of illumination began to be noticed on the interior face. This was aided by use of water white Cristallo glass. Interiors seemed much more natural, and attuned to the outside changes in light intensity. Till 19th C windows were vivid elements in an otherwise static exterior or interior surface. From outside the Cristallo was a dull opalescent surface, but clear glass with better casting, polishing and fire finishing began to be iridescent. The glass was recognised as having two distinctly different faces. Iridescent on the outside face due to reflections and a ‘water-white’ flawlessly clear and non glossy surface on the interior face. Corbusier used the opaque iridescence of the exterior surface to juxtapose the exterior masonry surface. But FLW used the deep shadows to eliminate the exterior iridescence and colour staining to break interior clarity. Mies used the exterior mirror like gloss to reflect the changes occurring in the surroundings simultaneously showing up the interior, and thereby reduce the massiveness of the built-form. Window glass is now often used to mix the realities of interior and exterior happenings on a very large joint-less single plane. The mix creates a very vivid object, like a water body reflecting the sky and the floor concurrently. Metalized opaque glass belies the two-way transparency of a see-through element.
Wall to wall glass openings dissolve one or many sides of a volumetric space, reshaping its perceptive size, scale and extent. The spatial illusion becomes more intriguing when such a large reflective glass surface is used.
We are conditioned to expect certain spatial effects in a space. A narrow space visually gets widened by a glass opening, though functionally remains the same. Skylights and clerestories add ‘lightness’ to the space. Lights such as roof holes focus the attention. Openings, depending on their location and nature redefine the space configuration. The stratification of view to the outside offers different scale to the space. Significantly bright areas highlight the details, and so are perceived and registered, more effectively then darker zones. A window becomes an element for changing a space, intentionally and accidentally.
Windows are furrowed gaps into an otherwise solid mass. The depth is highlighted due to the dark interior, and shadows cast by strong and directional light. The shadows as a form creating element was very well exploited by L. Kahn in his Asian buildings. The same effect at a micro scale and in repetition creates a lattice used in Indian Architecture. Windows like bay, bow, Mashrabiya and oriel have been used to enlarge interior spaces and also to correct the interior shape of the space. Zarokhas add to the interior space but have also been used to undulate the exteriors.
Masking has been very commonly used to change the character of the windows. Greek and Roman architecture subdued the openings as a secondary and less visible layer. Romanesque windows once again came to the surface, but openings were framed by the semi circular arch. Coordinating several windows was a concern as the height of the rounded arch was defined by the width of the opening. Gothic architecture solved the problems of geometric composition by pointed arch. It also created a system of subdividing the window opening through mullions, transoms and glazing bars. The window opening was masked by traceried patterns. Window masking became an effective tool to overcome the deficiencies of glass, size, clarity and impurities. The deficiencies made the windows subservient entity of the load-bearing structure. Glass houses, orangeries, etc. allowed windows to define a space without the use of a wall. The need for very large and deep sun lit spaces for bus depots, railway stations, markets, and factories redefined the windows spatial nature.
Framing is a property of all openings. Openings have their sides and mid members within the view cone depending on the point of observation. Palladio masked and framed the exterior face of the opening. The double-hung sash windows did the same on both, exterior and interior face. Framing is now used as an inevitable joint management system, and but often made imperceptible. Stratification (window openings’ position @ low, mid or higher level with reference to height of the user or the task plane) is an important ergonomic parameter that affects the spatial perception.
Transparency is a quality of the glass, and the most important aspect of the surface of the opening. A window opening in the form of a glass curtain wall or shop front, shows up the space in its exterior surface configuration, and also the spatial depths of its interiors. The simultaneity of the exterior and interior spaces adds to the dilemma of the physical reality vs the virtual reality.
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