Talking about Interior Design

STONES -a next generation perspective

2012-01-11T08:05:00.000-08:00

Lecture presented by Gautam Shah at Stone Workshop Faculty of Design CEPT University Ahmedabad

Stones like many other natural materials are abundantly available.

Most rocks that we are likely to encounter are within the top 16 kilometres of Earth's face.This mass is made up of 95% Igneous rocks and rest consisting of widely spread cover ofSedimentary and Metamorphic rocks.

We today have greater capacity to search over wider terrains and also reachat sub surface locations. Exploitation of stones as collection from the surfaceor extraction from various depths is not a major technological problem, buteconomics of transportation limits its commercial usage.

There are 3 essential sources of Building Stone Materials:

● Surface collected stones

● Extracted stones: surface protruding and subterranean mass

● Waste and recycled stones

The stones occur in many forms and sizes:

1 Large pieces which can be further down sized or cut intosmaller units,

2 Units that are used without any other processing,

3 Pieces which are crushed or disintegrated into finer particles,

4 Rejected material from mining and collection processes,

5 Wastes from stone sizing and dressing operations,

6 Debris material recovered from demolition of old buildingsand other structures.

SURFACE COLLECTED STONES

Surface collected stones from a single geographic region show only minorqualitative and size variations. Further quality equalization can be donelocation-based sourcing, visual selection, grading, separation. Surfacecollected stones can be further quality equalized through many types of‘processes’.

● Surface collected materials are naturally formed such as boulders,pebbles, gravel, sands, etc. These are very tough materials and equally weathered on all faces.

● Other surface collected materials are broken by naturaldisintegrating forces like weather, chemical reactions, land massmovements, internal stresses, etc. These stones may show up withvaried weathering on their faces. Such materials are fractured alongthe plane of shearing force or across the weakest plane, and so showunpredictable structural properties, inconsistent colour and grainstructure (texture) on different faces. These stones due to their longexposure are either the toughest remains or the weaker fractures. Inthe first instance further dressing or downsizing is difficult, and inthe second case consistent shaping is not possible.

● Such materials are found spread or located over a difficult toaccess terrain. Collection unless manual involves a large amount ofuseless mass.

EXTRACTED STONES

Extracted materials are buried (loaded) under the same or different natureof materials’ mass. The over burdening mass protects, as well ascontaminates the deposit. The water leaching through the organic soilburden is nominally acidic and affects the alkaline stone mass. TypicallyLime stones are not exposed to Carbon Dioxide due to the overburden andso are soft and porous when freshly extracted, but begin to harden onaeration.

● Igneous and metamorphic rocks are not strongly stratified and donot present distinctive layers or strata. Sedimentary rocks arestratified, generally in horizontal layers. However, due to movementsin the earth mass inclined and curved formations also occur.Sedimentary rocks show grains intervened by a cementing medium.

● Igneous and metamorphic rocks are often made of many differentsubstances, some of these components, as remnants, are nearlycrystalline compounds.

● Sedimentary rocks are comparatively formed of uniformconstitution though with streaked colouration due to seepage ofdissolved substances and stratification.

● Extracted rocks, require dressing, and often downsizing. Thecleavage or fracturing during dressing and fracturing depends notonly on the basic classification of the stone and also on constituentminerals such as silica, quartz, feldspar, mica, etc. These aspects alsodefine the types of tools used for working and the nature of surfacefinish possible.

Igneous rocks, such as Granite and Trap are formed with the solidification of moltenmaterials. Mineral gases and liquids penetrated into the stone and created new crystallineformations with various colours. Sedimentary rocks such as Lime stone, Sand stone, Soapstone Travertine, are formed from the bonding of deposition under pressure and heat overa very long period. Metamorphic rocks are formed by the transformation of igneous orsedimentary rocks, due to influence of heat or chemical action. Metamorphosed form ofstones: Marble (of lime stone), Schist (of sand stone) and Slate (of mud-stone).

Amorphous Solid is any material which does not have its molecules arranged in a lattice, orcrystalline structure. Amorphous solids make up only 10 % of solids in the world. A well-known example of amorphous solid is glass, and that is why these solids are often termedglass. Amorphous solids' structures have similarity to liquids, and so are also calledsupercooled liquids. Plastic is made from polymers, long strings of molecules purposefullychained together and is technically an amorphous solid.

Crystalline Solids constitute nearly 90 % of all solids in the world. Crystalline solids have alattice of molecules. The ordered pattern repeats substantially through the mass.

Stones are classified as Siliceous when silica is the principal earthy constituent, Calcareoushave carbonate of lime as the predominant material, and Argillaceous have alumina is themain component.

WASTES AND RECYCLED STONES

Stone extraction or collection creates large quantity of rejected and brokenmass. Site based dressing and downsizing, mainly done to reduce the massfor transportation, also generates large quantity of wastes. As stone sitesare very remote from the point of use or application, it is uneconomic totransport and use such waste materials. Downsizing and cutting workshopsare located near urban localities, and have an advantage that the wastesoriginating here have consistent one face or dimension. Machines that dressa block with rotary or stripe saws create wastes with smooth finish on oneor more faces. Similarly slabs’ end or edge cuts have a uniform thicknessprofile. Stone polishing machines provide ground particles which are used asfiller media.

Angular cut wastes can be tumbled with iron bits in a rotary drum to achieverounded edged pebbles. Stone wastes can be used to create cement andresin-based composites, and for ‘synthesizing’.

Stone buildings that are demolished in urban areas end up as debris for landfill for lack of man power required for separation and re-use. However, inrural area, it is possible to separate and reuse the material. Older stoneflooring units are thicker in comparison to modern supplies. This can be splitinto two or more units and use the cut-face as the new face. Similarlymasonry or building blocks can be cut to thinner blocks for use in claddingor surfacing. The advantage in reuse is free supply of mature (weathered-seasoned) stones.

STONE PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Stones, for cost of transportation, need to be in lightest possible units. Stones of only good surface quality and appropriate structural propertiesare brought at the point of use or application. However, quality parametersand economics of transportation rarely match at many locations. As such,whatever supplies are locally available must be exploited. Stones areexploited through following basic processes:

Subtractive processes are about removing material bysculpting, dressing, engraving, grinding, polishing, etc. Theconcept may be to ‘dress’ a surface or ‘sculpt’ a shape or size.

Formative processes are ‘non-mass adding’ procedures thatchange the spatial or physical character of the stone mass andalter its nominal behaviour. The treatments includeimpregnation, edge reinforcing, various types of chemicaltreatments through acid, alkali, solvent and other oxidativecompounds. Heat and flame treatments, sintering,spluttering, dying, bleaching, etc.

Additive processes add to the stone mass. Till very recentlytechnologies involved were of Surface layering by way ofcoating or cladding. But now ceramic formation, metalalloying and deposition, surface synthesis, surface moleculartreatments are on the horizon.

DRIVERS FOR THE TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS

The technological developments of these processes are driven by followingbasic issues.

1 Extend the Surface Area: Stones are valued for their surface qualitiesand prime need is to increase the surface area. The extended surfacereduces the mass / weight of the stones. The surface area of thestones can be enlarged by 2 basic methods: by Thin Sectioning andby Amalgamation of bits and pieces, which nominally end up as acollection and production wastes. Other methods of optimising thesurfaces are to endow new sensory qualities and surface properties. Many exciting technologies are now available.

2 Exploring structural properties: Stones have certain structuralproperties which can be improvised and reinforced. These effortsstart with new ways of excavation, extraction and conversion of thematerial. Other common processes are selection, orientation,rational sectioning and controlled aeration-seasoning. Structural potential of stones can also be exploited by developing new areas ofusage and new techniques of construction.

3 Stone Combinative formations: Traditionally stone composites havehad lime and cement as the matrix component. The explorations nowrelate to composites with new forms of filler arrangements and newtypes of a matrix. Designing geometrical or spatial compositions ofstones shows great promise. Materials’ technology front is alsooffering radically different materials’ combinative formations. Theformations include various ways of combining or 'synthesizing'materials of diverse nature. (Like for being attempted with ceramics+ metals / metals + synthetics / ceramics + synthetics etc.).

OPPORTUNITIES OF INTERVENTION

Stones have naturally variegated constitution and surfaces. These, providewith inexhaustible opportunities to work to many different forms, sizes, andfinishes. Though, qualitative consistency of man-made materials poses agreat challenge to multifarious nature of stone materials.

1 Different species of stones

2 Local variations

3 Exposure to environment

4 Depth of deposit

5 Position or integrity of the strata

6 Technologies for excavation and collection

7 Angle of cut or rupture

8 Tools and techniques of down sizing

9 Size and shape

10 Dressing and Finishing

11 Treatments

12 Application or Usage

13 Life cycle

These opportunities of intervention operate on two fronts:

• Improvisations over existing methods

• Adoption of radically different technologies.

Stones have structural attributes, often called Engineering characteristics,which regulate their usefulness for conversion to: Building or Dimensionstones, Veneered or thin slabs and for crushing. Similarly stones also exhibitvery distinctive sensory properties that govern their use as a facingmaterial in the form of building blocks, cladding and flooring slabs.

Dimension stones are selected or converted from natural rock material for the purpose ofobtaining blocks or slabs of different shapes and sizes.

Veneered or slab stones occur naturally as thin body materials or converted into thinsections for the purpose of cladding, surfacing and floorings.

Crushed stones are naturally found, separated as small sized pieces, manufacturing wastesor ground materials for use as aggregates or as additives.

● Determinants at mining or collection level: Condition of the stone mass(integrity, fractures, consistency of colour, grain and pattern), overburdening materials, access to the deposit, exposure to weather,possibilities of size extraction and carriage, applicable technology for sizing.

● Use related selection criteria: Durability, weight bearing capacity, shearstrength, ability to maintain the distinctive sensorial characteristics,resistance to decay and appearance.

● Mine or collection level operations: The stone materials if only relevant are carried off the place. This requires elimination of crust or weatheredsurfaces, uneconomic fractured or separated mass, removal of odd portions(in terms of constitution, colour, grain, etc., form or shape regulation extras,quality equalization selection).

● Workshop level primary processes: These are carried out at places wherepower, labour, equipment and markets are available, rather then at a mineor collection locality. These include sizing, cutting, dressing, finishing,splitting, sectioning or veneering, polishing, forming of edge or profile.

● Workshop level Subtractive or Mass removal processes: Surfacetreatments such as: sculpting, crafting, polishing, honing, engraving,inlaying, etching, sand blasting.

● Workshop level Additive processes: Resin or cement impregnation, crackfilling, reinforcing mass with applique materials, sandwiching, edge bindingand reinforcing.

● Workshop level formative processes: Colouring, staining, bleaching,flame-burnishing, Acid and Laser etching, printing.

● Craft processes: This requires human ingenuity (design-concept) andintervention of men & machines. These are one or few pieces to mass-produced items. Craft pieces are inspired by the form possible through amaterial or its combination, potential finish that can substantiate the form,and expression through aggregation of form and finish.

● Reconstructive processes: These processes use stone as a component rawmaterial while keeping its physical form in tact. Particulate composites areformed with a matrix of resin or cement, and fillers of stone materials invarious grades of fineness and shapes, such as: dusts, sands, gravels,pebbles, flakes, chips and lumps. Layered composites formed with sheetsor slabs and also with such forms made as of particulate stone composites.Amalgamation done by lamination, co-extrusion and sheet forming with theuse of polymers, metalizing, ceramic forming, etc.

● Surface altering processes: Washing, waxing, sintering, burnishing, heattreatments, laser and other radiation treatments.

● Masonry constructions: Techniques of stone masonry are very matureand scope for improvisation is seemingly very low. Yet, new forms ofbuildings, parts and components, require new concepts for masonry design.New methods of stone works are also required to manage specificdistribution and transmission of stresses, fitment provisions, carriage andplacement conditions, condition of the stone units.

● Bonds and arrangements in masonry structures: Romans were the firstinnovators of stone arrangements in masonry structures, since then nothingmuch has evolved except re learning of the lessons post disasters andmishaps.

● Structural Joints and Joining: Cement less to cemented systems havebeen used for years. Cement-less joinery now involves metal, polymer andelastomer in the form of inserts, cleats and seam channels. Many of theseitems and technologies are proprietary (patented) designs. The range mechanical joining systems include auto-fit, perma-fit and re-use systems.New cementing systems are like: pressure injections, film bonding, gelgumming, powder melt adhesions, reactive and electrical charge bonding.

● Substrates: Substrates are very important in levelling, fixing andstabilizing stones along the plane of gravity (horizontal). However, stoneswith flatter (a larger surface) and levelled bottom is naturally stable, andthis is now explored as a way of creating foundation bases, road beddings,gravity dams, retaining walls and porous structures. New substrate materialcombinations are available to replace lime and cement materials. Theseinclude cement and chemical foams, thixotropic compounds, expandedaggregates, a polymer sprays of organosols, and rubber and polymerunderlays of plain, corrugated and bubble sheet formations.

● Cladding and Surfacing: Traditionally cladding and surfacing (veneer)stones have been adhesion fixed with cements and gums. The traditionalapplications were in the form of water bound pastes, but now solvent boundpastes, catalyst activated bonding compounds, heat softening materials,pressure sensitive film-gums are available.

● Surface Patterns: The patterns are natural on the stone, through thecolour and grain variations, which are explored by regular stamping,mirroring, or randomization. Stone patterns are also formed by thetechniques of dressing, material combinations, surface finish combinations,joints design, form direction and scaling.

● Patterns and their meanings: Natural patterns due to colour and grainvariations are often unavoidable in large stone masses. The patterns, theircontrast and intensity (frequency) of distribution, and the form of patternbody (granular or spotty, linear -straight, angular, curved, consistent orvarying widths and massive) mean different things to different users.

● Plastering and Rendering: Stones in various form and sizes constitute asubstantial and very important mass with the cement and polymeric media.The stone additives determine renderings’ effects such as colour, andtextures like granulated, coarse, rustic, angulated, etc. Other effects areachieved by tools and techniques of application and post applicationtreatments. Post application treatments include green washing, pre-setblasting, dry blasting, chipping, grinding, colouring, etc.

● Make-believe stone effects: Such effects replicate sensory qualities ofstones, with and without the use of stone ingredients.

When stones are the constituent, these are used as fillers, or to takeadvantage of only one or few aspects of sensory qualities.

Stones may be used for texture, but coloured differently, patterns are masked by anotherdesign, feel is altered by a treatment or applique material, or water absorption is curtailed.

Similar make-believe effects are also created without the use of stoneingredients in any manner. Materials used for textural effects are mainly polyurethane-based polymeric compounds, which are hazardous inproduction, ‘life-cycle’ usage and disposal.

Wall papers, tiles, cladding panels, paper laminates, furnishing fabrics, textured paintingcompositions, etc. emulate real stone like effects. Palladio was one architect who extensivelyused stone like effects for building’s decorations from ceramics, and stones like masonrysurfaces through plaster renderings.

● Plaster-based renderings are often created using tools and applicators’skills. These are comparatively benign effects. However, such craft-applications over an extensive surface are not uniform.

● Effecting other materials’ through stones: These effects emulate othermaterials, but through stones as the ingredients. The stones are used fortheir structural properties, and physical characteristics, like grain form andsize, low cost and easy availability.

● Dreaming wildly: The Opportunities of Intervention for stones are offollowing types:

Stones alone

Stones with other earth-based materials

Stones with natural organic materials: such as plants

Stones with man-made materials such as Ceramics, Metals, Polymers(plastics and elastomers)

Stones alone: Stones present one of the largest resource of earth-basedmaterials. We have not touched even a small fraction of its top layerof mass. Ecologically its use or disposals are manageable. Onlyproblems with stones supply are its inconsistency of sensorial andoften qualities and difficult to predict structural properties. This iswhere man-made materials prove to be superior and reliable. Man-made materials require complex and costly processing whereasstones as a natural resource though unlimited in supplies have highcosts of extraction and transportation. Man-made materials arehighly custom created and so are not reused extensively, but stoneshave nine lives and can be used till conversion to form of a dustparticle. Man-made materials are produced through multiple-processing, making them difficult to recycle or dispose off safely.

Stones with other earth-based materials: Stones combined with otherearth-based materials provide many opportunities of usage.However, stones by themselves or with other earth-based materialshave limited scope for combinations. These are mainly by positioningsuch as spreading, layering or stacking with gravity, by using electro-magnetic forces or by kinetic method of tying-knotting. Few earth-based cementing materials such as mud, pozolana or plant gums areinsufficient in supplies and technically inadequate. Yet use of naturalmaterials with very small proportion of man-made of joiningmaterials and technologies can achieve outstanding results.

Stones with natural organic materials: Use of organic materials such asplant-based resources (Jungle, Farm produce) has not been exploredadequately. Primitive man started using wood in combination ofwood, which has been extended to buildings. Its use is limited aswood is a scarce resource (not easy to replenish). Other organicproducts require several levels of processing before qualifying theirapplication with stones. Every single new application is worth its waitand expense.

Stones with man-made materials: Stones have been used with man-madematerials like metals etc. But most technologies involve non-mixingcombinations, such as mechanical joining, adhesion fixing or coating.Stones and earth-based materials have been used in manysynthesizing processes. Stones in their physical form andcharacteristics have been exploited, as fillers, for creation ofcomposites. However, stones have been less frequently synthesizedwith man-made materials such as ceramics, metals and polymers.These are going to be the opportunities for the next generation.

The inspiration arrives from the successes achieved in combiningCeramics with Metals. Ceramics and metals individually have diversetemperature of forming. At a temperature a ceramic begins to evolvesome metal either evaporate, liquidize or form oxides. A combinationseemingly impossible is now being achieved, for example in electricaltransmission equipments, electronic components, tools and cuttingedges making. Similarly stones can be combined with many othermaterials.

Metal application technologies provide exciting results here.Metalizing a stone surface with metallic particulate or molecules, byplating and sputtering techniques is not farfetched. Synthetics aremainly made with organic (carbon-based) monomers in polymers but chaining. These have been used both as the matrix and fillerscomponents in composites. And can we visualize stones, not in therole of filler but of matrix in composite forming?

MATERIAL PROCESSING

A material technologist may further classify Opportunities of Interventionsin terms of stones with:

Primary processed materials:

A brick manufactured from a soil or a fabric created from cotton or wool isprimary processing

Secondary processed materials and composites:

A nitro-cellulose produced from natural material such as cotton is primarybut a film out of it is secondary processing. Metal refined from ore andconverted into an alloy is secondary processing.

Tertiary processed materials or multi material synthetics:

A monomer produced from petroleum is primary, a polymer out of it issecondary, a fibre spun out of a polymer is tertiary, and fibres fused as alayered sheet or used as a reinforcement make it multi-lateral processing.

Molecular level build-up of materials or sub-nano technologies: These arecompletely different methods of creating materials combinations. Herematerials are created at molecular level combinations or molecules areimplanted over a base. Many pharmaceutical drugs, chemicals, stem celltechnologies are based on such works.

2.07 PLACEMENT OF SPECIFICATIONS

2011-12-02T20:35:00.001-08:00

Specifications derive their importance and relevance on How andWhere these are presented. Specifications in Design Practice are placedin many different types of documents with peculiar formats to servevery exact intentions. The Document type, location (Placement) andthe format of presentation, are all determined mainly by the nature ofexposure the specifications are to have.

Document types: Design documents are essentially of Four types: in-house, clients’ eyes, for consultant’s and for job award orexecution. Other minor varieties of design documents include: forpublic presentation, for government authorities.

Location or Placement: Specifications are placed in sketches, drawings,as write-up accompanying drawings, as part of Job awards, briefmemos, long reports, signage, as product or packing labels.

Format of Presentation: Specifications are literary or worded, drawn,orally communicated. Specifications could be sketchy, detailed,independent and intricately linked. Specifications could be drawn,printed, digital, audio-video, signs, signals, original, facsimiles.

Exposure: Very personal, i.e. author's-eyes only (access restricted to itscreator), In-house (available to office-staff only), Clients’reference, Consultants' assignments, Bids invitations or Jobawards, Contract documents, Operating agencies.

Contents: The contents of specification documents are often defined toserve very specific purposes. The contents are re validated tosee if, the information is private vs. public, Data is freehold(public domain) or patent (copyright, intellectual property), subjectis prosaic or engaging, presentation is brief or detailed,language is allegorical or straightforward, etc.

SPECIFICATIONS IN A DESIGN OFFICE ARE PLACED:

Within a sketch or preliminary drawing: These drawings are preparedto initiate an idea. Sketch or preliminary drawings are too small inscale, lacking in details, and do not carry all the graphical viewsto convey the intentions. Similarly materials, components,procedures, and design parameters which have not yet been fullyconceived, or not crystallized into a formal structure, are allplaced as a write-up. Such write-ups are usually meant for thedesigner's personal reference, and very rarely for the client, soneed not be a trade, technique or material specific. Thesewrite-ups may be just indicative or thin in content, as these areseedlings from which the total idea is to germinate.

Within a schematic drawing: At a schematic drawing's stage, thedesign has taken shape. Options regarding materials, finishes,techniques, are explored and indicated as write-up, in thedrawing. Where parts / subsystems are yet to be conceived theirdesign parameters are also indicted. More often than not a set(copy) of schematic drawings is submitted to the client. In such acase only the office copy (in-house set), carries the specifications’write-up. Schematic drawings are exploratory so may also carryoptional specifications. However, whatever is shown or implied,will be construed by a client to be a promise.

Within a Layout Drawing: Layout drawings as the name indicates areused for specifying the whole work. These are also used in layingout the work on a site, and so contain specifications forestablishing the scheme on the site. Since this is the main orstarter drawing it establishes links to other drawings anddetails. It is used for conveying methods of interpretation for thisand other linked drawings. Measures (dimensions, tolerances,fitments, margins, and measures like weights /mass /speed/time), which cannot be graphically indicated or linked to anyparticular graphical view are presented as a common write-up orexplanation. Being the basic drawing, it provides a commonground to indicate, when and how a part or parts of drawingbecome execution worthy. Limitations and responsibilities ofvarious agencies' work, time schedules and inter linkups for startand completion of various items, parts, etc., are all specified inthe layout drawing.

Within a Detail Drawing: Detailed drawings are generally large scalepresentations of complex parts. These drawings are often used byseveral trades’ persons. Overlapping areas of several componentsare shown here. The detail drawing specifications include legendsshowing graphical vocabulary used for identifying variousmaterials in sections and on their faces (elevations). It alsoincludes graphical symbols to represent very small parts orstandard components. The specifications on such drawings clearlyindicate or establish relationships between the component and theconcerned trades branch. Where several detailed drawing sheetsare referred for a part or component, specifications need not berepeated on all sheets. However, if specifications are to bedistributed over several sheets, a proper linkage must beestablished. These makes it easy to revise specifications ordrawings, and convey such changes to the concerned parties,through other means of communications.

Within a Component Drawing: Components are conceived as selfsufficient sub systems, and as a result their details consist of notonly the fitment conditions, but operative parameters as well.Component specifications generally do not spread over to manydrawings (Large/complex components will consist of subassemblies, which can be detailed individually). Components, ifpresented with siting specifications, it will mean a non standardplacement is proposed. Whereas for standard components,absence of siting specifications, will mean that standard conditionsapply. Standardised components may also be indicated byreferencing the Standards’ Documents.

As a separate write-up but on the Drawing Sheet: Specifications as aseparate write-up on drawings, generally relate to procedures andmaterials about several parts or whole of the object, e.g. siting ofa building on land, preliminary-work to be carried out before thecommencement of actual work, precautions regarding the start /continuation / completion of the work, etc. These are presentedin a written format, because graphical formats are inadequate orinappropriate here. In situations where graphical presentations arelikely to create ambiguities in interpretation (as in a court oflaw, or by lay people not conversant with graphical presentations,communication through inappropriate modes, etc.) details must beadditionally specified in writing.

As a separate document accompanying Drawings: WhereSpecifications are not related to any particular drawing, and aredescribing common materials and procedures etc. that generallyrelate to the entire work, and when are very lengthy, are suppliedon separate sheets of paper accompanying the drawing. Ifnecessary, mention of such Sheets is made in the relevantdrawings. Such sheets sometimes are bunched together as acatalogue of Specifications of Works.

As Memos and Short Messages: Site and Design Office have acontinuous exchange of messages relating to inquiries,clarifications, confirmations, rejections, acceptance, corrections,reporting, etc. Some sections of such communications could haveeffect equal to a revision of a specification or initiation of a newspecification. For this reason all messages, routed throughwhatever mode of communication must be Dated and Numberedwith Author and Receiver's Identity. It is often more prudent toseparate out Communications that could have ConsequentialEffect, and reconfirm them in the weekly or periodical reports.Communications relating to a specification, must mention therelevant part, component, subsystem or section of the project andexact location (drawing, communication, tender etc.) where it wasearlier referred to.

As part of the Job Award Document like Tender: Specifications are veryoften linked to the Quantities of various tasks or work items, byactual mention or sheer proximate placement. The contractor isthan asked to quote for the items. Such specifications are dividedinto two classes:

General Specifications: General Specifications as the namesuggests, relate to the whole of work or several items. These aresubdivided into categories such as (a) materials (b) techniques /procedures (c) precautions (d) time schedules (e) mode ofmeasurements (f) billing procedures (g) completion of a part/s orwhole.

Special Specifications: Special Specifications relate to an itemand its materials, techniques / procedures, precautions, timeschedules, etc. Such specifications are sometimes trade orsupplier specific, and as a result, are restricted and technical innature. Often the supplier is allowed to offer own improvisedscheme within the frame work of specifications. Suchspecifications instead of describing, how and with what a part isto be made, a list of Performance Parameters and Conditionsof Fitments are provided.

When specifications occur with any quantities for work or job,these are often perceived by the contractor or vendor, to be theoptimal quantity of work for cost calculation. To avoid such aperception minimal quantity per natural lot of work (e.g. RCC ormasonry work per day or stage) may need to be indicated.

As a Public Declaration: Public organizations are required to betransparent in their dealings. Public organizations regularly oroccasionally (synchronised with major endeavours) place a statement in a public domain. This could be legal requirement,tradition or a voluntary act. Such a declaration in the form aStatement of Work (SOW), is published when a new project islaunched. It could also be an internal publication for all stackholders or one handed over to the contractor of a project.

As Description for Pro-forma Invoice: To avoid the technicality ofspecifications writing, many organizations, prefer to acquire itemsthat are familiar, standardized or commonly available in themarket. Commercial descriptions or simply the Brand Namesare provided as a Pro-forma Invoice (an advanced bill /predefined bill). Such Pro-forma Invoices also include theconditions of delivery, installation, the quantity, sizes along withthe tentative rates. Often the buyer indicates a tentative rate overwhich a supplier provides a quote which may be lower, equal orhigher. Such a system obviates several office procedures. ThePro-forma Invoice Specifications in a way demand a particularproduct or its equivalent, with knowledgeable performance. Pro-forma specifications do not allow any revision of specifications.

Referencing Standards: Specification to be compact, referencePublished (public domain) Standards. Most Standards for part ordetail level clarity refer to many other standards. So when astandard publication is referenced only by its title and code (andby not quoting its text), intentionally the main standards documentis attached, but unintentionally other linked standards alsoautomatically getting attached. A sub condition of a standard maybe referenced, but it is very difficult to make it really effectivebereft of its natural attachments.

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

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General: Performance Specifications tell a manufacturer, vendor, supplier orprovider: What is considered to be an acceptable product? And How will theproduct's acceptability be judged ? In other words performance specificationsstate requirements in terms of the results to be achieved and providecriteria for verifying the compliance. Such specifications define the functionalrequirements for the product, the environment in which it must operate, andthe interface and interchangeability requirements. Performance specifications,however, do not state means or methods for achieving the results. It allowsthe supplier with freedom to not only choose but improvise materials andmethods.

Systems specifiers like a designer deal with a product or system onlyoccasionally and do not get frequent feedback. Whereas a system provider(such as the supplier, manufacturer, fabricator or installer) is consistentlyinvolved in supply field, and receives feedback from diverse sources. Systemsuppliers as a result has better understanding and capacity to improvise theproduct. A system specifier may specify a technologically adequate system,but a system provider offers a technologically superior and economicallymost appropriate item.

A designer as a system specifier must work in close collaboration with themarkets (represented as the supplier, manufacturer, fabricator or installer,etc.). To specify performance, ideally a system specifier and the partiescapable of submitting the proposal or bid, both must have a consensus as towhat the requirements are. But this type of neutral interaction is not possibleor desirable in Government deals. So it is desired that requirements ofperformance are specified quantitatively rather than qualitatively. Qualitativedata can provide varying interpretations and cause misunderstandings, butquantitative data is easily verifiable.

Performance and Verification: Any condition, characteristic, or capability thatmust be achieved, and is essential for item to perform in the perceivedenvironment must be plausible and verifiable. For example, if a building isrequired to withstand certain measure of an earthquake, then methods how toverify this must be stated. Verification process is accompanied by definition of'the extent of contractor or vendor's participation and their liability for providingcorrective solution’. Warranties offered by the vendor can to some extentsubstitute the performance and verification requirements. However, veryoften warranties of the vendors are restricted to their own supplies. Thewarranties are also conceived like a risk management system for compensatinga fault with something 'equivalent' or money, but not the for the affectationsthat occur in adjacent areas or systems.

In comparison to item or work specifications, performance specifications requirefewer references, except for standard tests, interface drawings, etc. Due to theabsence of procedures, performance specifications are less dependent.

Restrictions in Performance Specifications: Performance specifications mustnot limit a provider to specific materials, processes (including quality of manpower or equipments), parts, etc. However, one can prohibit certain materials,processes, or parts when authorities have declared quality, reliability, or safetyconcerns such materials, technics or processes, as for exampleenvironmentally harmful technologies. Upper and/or lower performancecharacteristics can only be stated as requirements, but not as goals or bestefforts.

Writing performance specifications: A System specification writer must know:‘Which requirements are absolute or threshold requirements? Definitions ofsuch thresholds. All constraints governing operations or use through naturaland induced environments, interface with other systems, operator andmaintenance person's limitations, must be declared’‘.

Performance Specifications for Structural, Architectural and Interior Designjobs: Such jobs consist mainly of industrially produced and standardcomponents, but their composition (fabrication, installation or siting) is a uniquephenomenon. Performance specifications at parts or components level are notvery difficult to implement. However, adopting a performance specificationstrategy for large complex systems, or whole projects is a very difficultproposition. Design professionals can overcome this problem by consciouslymoving towards self-sufficient systems like plug-in modules, rather thenexcessively customised products that remain one-time efforts. Performancespecifications at lower levels such as for replaceable components andspares, should include essentials for interchangeability and interoperability.

Strategies for Creating Performance Specifications: It is very difficult toconceive a fresh set of exclusive performance specifications. But one cangradually and consciously reformat the traditional specifications with inclusionof performance parameters for standard parts and components.

Resources for Performance Specifications: Many resources are available toform performance specifications, such as: Government departments and largecorporate groups which prepare indexed descriptions of commercial itemsfor frequently or routinely required products. Such performance oriented descriptions are available in a public domain through their purchase bids.Trade associations, commercial organizations, or technical societies oftendevelop coordinated standard specifications, for the warranted performanceof items produced by their members. Government Departments design andpublish Model Specifications for use by their own sub departments and otheragencies. Performance specifications of well-organized departments likedefense, telecommunications, etc. can be used for further understanding ofthe methodology. Market analysis as available in technical journals can showthe ranges of performance that are currently possible. Market analysis alsoshow the technologies involved and available alternatives.

Standard Performance Specifications: Standard performance specificationsare intended to facilitate standardization and interchangeability of commonequipment. Standard performance specifications specify productcharacteristics, dimensions, matters relating to form, fit, and functions.

2.1 MEASURES

2011-11-25T20:40:00.000-08:00

We measure lengths, areas, volumes, weights to define things. Measures when combined with Time show the changes that occur in things. We measure events or happenings, for their start, the rate at which these actualize, duration and termination. Measures are very important in recording and recreating events and happenings.

Measurement is finding size or amount of some quantity, and expressing it as a number of defined units. All measurements are based on comparisons. A thing to be measured is compared with something similar, or with a thing that has already been calibrated -measured against a known reference.

There was a time, when things were measured in terms of body sizes and body’s capacities. Long Distances were measured for the travel time required, like in lunch breaks or night halts. Short distances or Lengths were measured in arm lengths or foot steps. Smaller sizes were measured with the palm, length of a finger or width of a thumb. Finer widths were measured in terms barley grain. Volumes were measured as the holding capacity of limbs like pinch or palm. Weights were measured in terms of carrying or displacement capacity of a person or animal, such as head load, cart loads, horsepower.

Measures based on body sizes or capacities had many racial and regional variations. It was possible to equate out such differences in a barter trade between neighbours. But the same was proving to be very difficult for trade with far-off regions. There was an acute need for some common measure system. Gradually trading blocks concurred to a common tradition of Nominal measurements. Conversion of measures with adjoining trade regions was facilitated by intermediaries like brokers, caravan masters and shippers. The inconsistencies of the measure conversions were partly solved when monetary pricing replaced the bartered trading.

Over a period of time many units for measuring length came into practice in different societies. Lengths were measured in Angula, Danda, Goruta or Korsa, Dhanush, Inches, Cubit, Digit, Thumb, Hand, Arm, Feet, Yojan or Jojan, Yard, Chain, Link, Fathom, Rod, Furlong, Miles, Nautical miles, League, Stadia. Early metric system had several units @ 10^X such as Millimetre, Centimetre, Decimeter, Metre, Dekametre, Hectometre, Kilometre. To these were added micro measures like nanometre, micron and Angstrom.

Roman pes or foot was divided in 12 parts called unciae, from which the words inch and ounce have derived. Similarly yard (gird) can be traced back to early Saxon kings who wore a sash or girdle around the waist which was removed and used to measure lengths. Later King Henry decreed that a yard should be the distance from the tip of his nose to the end of his outstretched thumb.

During the French Revolution (1870) the National Assembly of France asked French Academy of Sciences to formulate a scientific and rational measure system. Such a system was expected to be: 1 Neutral and Universal, 2 Replicable anytime and anywhere, 3 to have Decimal Multiples, 4 to follow Common Prefixes and 5 be Practical and Simple to use. The rationale for such a system forced many countries of Europe to think on similar strategies.

Industrial Revolution period saw faster means of transport and better communication systems. It fostered trade between far off regions and different political domains. The producer and the consumer were very distanced. British, Spanish, French and Dutch empires through trading outposts and colonies controlled major part of the international trade. These Trading Blocks maintained their own measurement system. In spite of trading blocks, the need for a common, logical, definable, replicable and comparable system of measurements was acutely felt.

Foot & Pound system was widely used in British colonies and their trading outposts besides USA and parts of Canada. Foot & Pound system was a well developed but not very coherent as relationships between measures were illogical. Metric System on the other was mathematical but had too many sub fractions. Different nations, regions, and trade groups favoured different sub fractions, creating confusion. This was perhaps the major deterrent for other countries (chiefly those following the FP system), desiring a change over to the Metric System. Historically Metric system has seen many versions: CGS or the Centimetre-gram-second system, MKS or the Metre-kilogram-second system, MTS or the Metre-tonne-second system.

First International effort to develop a worldwide policy for weights and measures was made during May 1875. Some 17 countries signed a Metre Convention or Convention du Mètre, an international treaty to create a ‘permanent mechanism to recommend and adopt further refinements in the metric system’. This was directed towards defining what constitutes a standard measure unit and means to replicate it in great accuracy anywhere and anytime and towards defining sub units for the main measures.

The metric convention was held at the time of heightened Industrial activity during the Industrial Revolution period across Europe and USA. Signatories of Treaty of Metric were: USA, Germany, Hungary, Belgium, Brazil, Argentina, Denmark, Spain, France, Italy, Peru, Portugal, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Turkey, Venezuela.

After the Convention du Mètre in France in 1875 a General Conference on weights and measures or Confèence gènvrale des poids et mesures CGPM was organised in 1889. Eight CGPM, at rough intervals of 4 years, were held till 1933, followed by an inactive period due to world war II. These meetings gradually evolved a worldwide policy on the advice of scientists and metrologists.

Conférence générale des poids et mesures (CGPM), an intergovernmental conference of official delegates of member nations and the supreme authority for all actions. It continued the deliberations of Convention du Mètre.

Comité international des poids et mesures (CIPM), consisting of selected scientists and metrologists, which prepares and executes the decisions of the CGPM and is responsible for the supervision of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.

Bureau international des poids et mesures (BIPM), a permanent laboratory and world centre of scientific metrology, the activities of which include the establishment of the basic standards and scales of the principal physical quantities and maintenance of the international prototype standards.

Hectic reconstruction activities began everywhere in the post world war II (1945) period. Major impediments to this effort were the differing National Standards. To allow free flow of raw materials, equipments and technology a platform of common Standards and Specifications was required. In 1946, delegates from 25 countries met in London to create a new organization, to facilitate the international coordination and unification of industrial standards. The new organization, Organisation internationale de normalisation, ISO, officially began operations on 23 February 1947, in Geneva, Switzerland.

The word ISO was selected to represent the organization in all languages because it is derived from the Greek isos, meaning equal.

9th CGPM in 1948, meeting after 15 years gap due to WW II formally adopted a recommendation for writing and printing of measure unit symbols and numbers. The name Systeme International d'Unites (International System of Units), with the international abbreviation SI, was adopted for this New Metric System.

In 1960, the CGPM revised and simplified the measure system. Seven Base Units such as: meter (Length), kilogram (Mass), second (Time), ampere (Electric current), kelvin (Temperature), mole (Substance), and candela (Luminous intensity), were established.

Acceptance of SI has been varied. For French and other European countries including their colonies, already using MKS system, adopting the new system (SI) was very easy. In 1965 Britain started using it. Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa quickly followed and soon exceeded the speed of change in Britain. In 1975, USA officially accepted the Metric system (in the form of SI system), but no specific schedule was set for the change over.

SI MEASUREMENTS: As a designer, we are concerned with formulating or creating new entities, and also using ready parts and components. For both the purposes, we need to specify the Measures. ISO has formulated rules for Writing and Specifying Measures in drawings, documents, specifications and other forms of communication. This is done to avoid any ambiguities in interpretation of information.

WRITING AND SPECIFYING MEASURES:

▪ All decimal numbers must be preceded by a zero if no other digit exists. e.g. 0.121 (and not as .121 )

▪ No thousand or hundred markers are to be used, e.g. 1000 (and not 1,000), but where large number of digits are involved a blank or space (equal to 1 digit or not less than ½ digit in width) may be used as a separator, in place of a marker. However, where only four digits are used no space as a separator need be provided. e.g. 100 000, 10 000 or 1000 (but not 1 00 000 or 1 000)

▪ For length units km / m / mm, all must be in small letters (Unit indicators may be used, only when necessary. e.g. architectural plans have nearly all measures in mm, so the mention of mm should be avoided. However, in the same drawing if weight or volume or such other measures are to be indicated then unit identifiers for such units may be indicated).

▪ Full names of units even when these are named after a person, are written in small letters: ampere, volt etc., with the exception W for watt and J for joule.

▪ For liquid measure however lt may be written as Lt (to differentiate between 1 and l ).

▪ Plurals need not be used. (kms, mts, kgs).

▪ Point or Full stop for abbreviation may not be used, for example as in m.m. or mm.

▪ Where cubic or square measures are to be shown: 3m3 = will mean three cubic metres and not 3³ i.e. 3 x 3 x 3 = 27cmt.

▪ Following common units are acceptable

Length mm m km (all 1000 factored)

Weight gm kg mt or t (all 1000 factored)

Liquid mlt Lt klt (all 1000 factored).

▪ Where traditionally only one unit is accepted, and if there are no chances of ambiguity, the measure nomenclature (mm, km, gm etc.) may not be mentioned. (E.g. cloth width = 1.200). If in one sheet of drawing (or a document) only one scale and one mode of measure are used, the nomenclature may be mentioned as a general instruction for the drawing.

▪Where drawings or details are likely to be reduced or enlarged in processing / copying, a graphical scale preferably showing 100 mm bar may be shown. If 100 mm size is not suitable due to micro reduction or macro enlargement, suitable multiples of 100 mm for upwards scaling and 10x fractions of 100 mm for downwards scaling maybe used.

MEASUREMENTS ON DRAWINGS

When both mt & mm are used on drawings, it will be less confusing if the dimension is always written to three places of decimals, i.e. 3.450. No unit symbol need be shown unless a lesser number of decimal places are used; i.e. 3.450 or 3.45 m and under some circumstances 3.5 m, are all correct. Of the options, 3450 and 3.450 both are preferred. Where no ambiguity can arise, symbols may be discarded, according to following rules:

▪ Whole numbers indicate mm

▪ Decimated fractions to three palaces of decimals indicate m (and also by implication, mm)

▪ All other dimensions must be followed by the unit symbol.

▪ Where dimensions refer to different types of measures (lengths, weights, temperature etc.), preferably all units should be indicated or all units other than the major one should be indicated.

▪ Main dimensions and the tolerance (fitments, limits, margins etc.) etc. should be in the same unit system.

▪ Where main dimensions are accompanied by + or - range, both should be in the same unit.

From Interior Design Notes : Interior Design Practice & Office Management - II

Origin of ISO 9000 Series of Standards

2011-11-08T07:39:00.000-08:00

2.13 ISO 9000 STANDARDS

ISO began its work primarily with the formation of standards for measurements, such as: specifications for writing and coordinating measures. The Standards for Measurements offered a universal approach for measurement systems. Subsequently ISO began to evolve International Standards for Products, Services, Processes, etc. These were derived as a consensus based on many national standards. The international standards though universal in nature related to issues that were self contained within the product, service or process. The standards were upgraded and redefined every five years, and sometimes more frequently. Yet, to serve the user better, many individuals and organizations outperform the standards.

Today business is no longer just about making available an adequate product, service or process to a user alone. In all human endeavors every citizen (or a being) is considered a stack holder. So one has to be conscious and conscientious of all our actions. It was accepted that for a consistent and all-inclusive care, an attitude at personal level and a culture at organizational level is necessary. This can only be achieved if a person or the organization strives for continued excellence, and develops a synergistic system to achieve it. Many individuals and organizations have such ingrained mechanisms, but these are often not comparable in terms of their intentions or achievements.

It is very necessary to institutionalize the individual attitudes and organizational culture for ‘good management’ with support of right policies, procedures, records, technologies, resources, and structures. To achieve a Quality System of consistency, a Quality Conscience is required. The Quality Management Systems created by ISO are meant to certify the processes and the system of an organization, not the product or service itself.

QMS or Quality Management Standards have their origin in the Product Liability Directives of European Community (EC) of July 1985. (also known as the single market directives) which state that manufacturers exporting to the EC and, eventually, to the European Free Trade Association, would need to have a well documented and implemented Quality Assurance System for certain regulated products.

In this direction ISO created a series of Quality Management Standards (QMS), designated as ISO 9000 series.

Opportunities for Interior Designers

2011-04-10T21:25:00.000-07:00

Interior Designers have many fields to employ their skills. One may work as an independent professional, free lancer, conditional associate, or as an employee. Interior designers also work in many parallel fields like product design, developer of interior prototypes, producer or manufacturer of interior components, supervisor for interior components’ production, maintenance person for interior spaces and components, advisor or consultant for interior design related concepts (such as event management), and as administrator for interior related affairs.

Interior designers are sensitive to materials and finishes, and so work as conservator, preserver, and renovator of built spaces. Interior designers also have the competence to mould and manipulate the built environments and are ideal for reformation and adaptation of redundant buildings.

In today’s world of miniaturization, systems and components are becoming smaller, as a result large amount of built spaces becomes spare or redundant. A building is not only a very costly resource to acquire but would need equal or perhaps costlier effort to dispose it off. So large number of buildings are being reestablished through renovations and alterations. These provide a vast opportunity for skills of Interior Designers.

Interior Designers have a very important role to play in product design decisions. A product or component designer may conceive a very functional and tangible product, but human interactions with that product are influenced by the contextual interior environmental conditions. Interior products include everything used and housed in an interior space, like, furniture and furnishings, fixtures and fittings, tools, gadgets, equipments, etc. The interior environment could be of a building, ship, aircraft, space station, automobile, bus or railway carriage.

With technological developments, Interior and Building components have not remained just passive parts, but, have become very active systems. Success of a building as a utility depends on adequate working, operation or conductance of such systems. Interior designers are best suited for the role of maintenance person of such systems, as a house keeper or interior space manager. Large organizations (hotels, guest houses, corporate head offices, museums, showrooms, departmental stores) have estates, substantially consisting of buildings, furniture, furnishings, plants, equipments, utilities, gardens, and landscaped lands. Managements of these require in-house an estate-in-charge person. Interior designers are often preferred for such a role.

Interior Design training to day includes design drafting and presentation technologies in digital media. Interior Designers with competence in computerized drafting (AUTOCAD), 3D modelling, animation, walk through, rendering, etc. find employment in many other design fields. Interior Design training consists of colour, rendering, graphics and presentation techniques, preparing them for diversions to fields like artwork, advertising, cinematography, exhibitions, publicity, etc.

OPENINGS' TREATMENTS

2010-09-10T20:13:00.000-07:00

A chapter on OPENINGS' TREATMENTS has been added to Interior Components and Systems (Interior Design Notes) Check my site www.gautamshah.in

IDENTIFICATION AND DECLARATIVE ELEMENTS ON OPENINGS

2010-06-21T08:45:00.000-07:00

An opening system of a building offers many opportunities for the use of declarative elements to present the identity of the occupant and the nature of occupancy. The identification and declarative elements are very essential for personalization of the building.

Identification and declarative elements state the owner, the nature of ownership, and conditions for visitations. These are done by direct expressions as well as very subtle means. Often these are placed due to the social conditioning, without knowing their purpose or significance.

Openings are smaller apertures then the surrounding walls and so are the visual and functional focus of a space. To support these patterns that are axially symmetrical, incorporating a mid accentuation (rise in a circular segment), pointers, triangulation, vertically elongated shapes, formations of upright lines are used here. These elements as topping treatments also accentuate the height scale. Other openings like windows and gaps also carry similar elements to create a balance of similarity.

Identification elements differentiate a building within a group or associate the building to a category. Identical doors and windows conjoin several, even differently styled buildings into a cohesive entity, a colony. Similarly in a mass housing colony, people treat their doors, windows, or curtains, extravagantly different from their neighbours.
The identification and declarative elements announce the nature of opening like, entry, exit, restricted access. These elements on the outer face of a building project a message for the passerby and visitors, and the same occasionally placed on the interior side, reinforce it for the departing visitor.

Identification and declarative elements mark the identity and status of the owner, nature and antiquity of the ownership. The occupier’s name, caste, educational qualifications, native place and titles are marked over the door. The name of the building, its date of commencement or occupation is the common mention. Antiquity of the building is associated with the main entrance by marking of important events that have taken place in the building.

The entrance door is not just the factual place of arrival but is a metaphoric point of entrance for everything, good or evil, friend or enemy, known or unknown. A visitor, and everything else, is expected to arrive at the main door, in spite of many other convenient points. In some way it is a point of fear, doubt and danger as much as it is of hope, fulfilment and safety. Means of physical and spiritual defence are placed here even though there may be more vulnerable locations in a building.

The visitor’s announcement and identification systems are placed near the formal entrance, such as: bells, knockers, buzzers, talking pipes, whistles, sirens, rattlers, vibrators, horns, intercoms, video recognition, surveillance systems.

STAGE CURTAINS

2010-06-05T02:24:00.000-07:00

Stage curtains are used to cover the performance as well as backstage areas from the audience. Plain opaque, translucent or scenic curtains and fixed curtained panels are used to divide the performance zone. Proscenium stages use many types of curtains than arena or thrust-out stages. The main or the first curtain on the audience side is called a grand drape, act curtain, house curtain, house drape or main drape. These are made of heavier fabric.

The curtains are either dropped downward or moved sideways. In smaller theatres curtains have two leaves which part away horizontally. In larger theatres the curtains are suspended from a batten or staff and dropped down. The curtains open vertically a guillotine reveal -after the execution device, by moving into the fly tower. The curtains are (flown in theatre terminology) dropped or raised up to a required height masking the upper section of the stage. The dropping is quickest way of lowering a curtain. A single curtain which moves horizontally is called a wipe. A tab or tableau curtain has two overlapping leaves which are lifted from the corners in a diagonal direction. This forms a draped effect when it is opened. Austrian, braille or contour curtain is lifted through several vertical runners attached the back of the curtain. The curtain has set of circular segmental folds. A Venetian or profile curtain is similar in appearance to the Austrian drape, but each individual pleat can be raised independently, allowing the curtain to be opened to various heights or configurations. A scrim is a curtain made of a gauze like fabric that seems to be opaque when lit from the front and transparent when backlit. A backdrop curtain is a painted or scenery curtain forming the back surface of the performance area. A cyclorama is a large white curtain that encircles the stage and provides a background.

The depth of the performance stage is divided into zones with curtains. Very often such curtains are gestural to denote a break or end of an act though most are made from black or other dark coloured, non light reflective materials. A curtain call is a curtsey or thanks call offered beyond the closed position of the curtain, but in front part of the stage. Side wings are fixed curtains to obscure side sections of a stage. Curtains or head-wings are used to hide the upper section stage properties such as the hanging gears, ropes and rolled or folded section of the curtains. Main curtains were first drop curtains but these required a heavy bottom staff. As this was hazardous, roll curtain was soon adopted. ‘Curtain was raised after the prologue and remained up throughout the performance, all scene shifting was in view of the audience. It was not until 1750 that an ‘act drop’ was used; previously, even intermezzi were performed in front of a full stage setting’.

Treatments over Opening Systems

2010-05-30T00:37:00.000-07:00

Keywords: doors, windows, port holes, skylights, gaps and gates / architects / interior designers / users / outside, inside and within the opening systems single systems / layered systems / integrated systems.

Openings are specifically intentioned and architecturally well detailed systems. Yet such architectural entities need to be customised and personalized according to the location, orientation, interior use and the user. Openings also need to be multi purpose system with various mechanisms and appendages. The mechanisms endow wide range of functionality whereas the appendages as applique treatments make an opening a personal entity.
Openings such as doors, windows, port holes, skylights, gaps and gates require many different treatments on the exterior as well interior faces. The treatments work individually in their own, or concurrently satisfy a complex set of requirements. The treatments enhance or compensate what an opening offers. The treatments are temporary or permanent, applique or integrated, and spatially partial or whole.

Window treatments are provided, first by the building designers -the architects, then corrected and added upon by the interior designers, and lastly improvised by the users. In each case the domain of action though the same, the choices, opportunities and expertise are very different. A designer as a rationalist looks for a comprehensive or universal solution, whereas a user realises and improvises each solution individually. A designer outputs circumstantially best solution through technical excellence, whereas a user looks for an outstandingly different result.
Wherever generalized opening systems are used, additional corrective, compensative co-systems are required. Such add on systems help customize the stylized or universal designs. Such appendages take place outside, inside and also within the opening systems. They are made to exist so close to the opening system that in many instances, almost merge or integrate into the base system. Though some systems coexist by staying apart and only for that reasons are effective.

# One of the first opening treatment was the cover placed over a gap for security, privacy, illumination and climate control. However, a single cover was not adequate to meet all the needs. The cover was required to have different types materials’ qualities and formations. Needs like illumination and climatic control required the shutter to be directionally manipulable so as to adjust to their continuous variations. The shutter of an opening system can be opened-closed in many different ways (hinged, pivoted, sliding) and positioned to various degrees of opening, and these allow the shutter to offer many options.

Openings’ treatments also help to integrate the openings to the larger context like the architectural entity, the building, the room, space unit, or the facade. The integration of the opening is done at several levels: by merging or contrasting the opening, by establishing, enhancing, diluting, or deleting the relationship amongst the openings, and by endowing some characteristic features for scaling, proportioning, a theme or style.

Half circle arched openings have a problem that height of the arch is dependent over the width of the gap. For openings of different widths, if the head point is matched then the base (spring point of the arch) varies, and when the springing line is levelled then head point of the arch varies. This problem was solved in Gothic architecture by use of pointed arch, and from then on all openings, whatever their width had common head point level.

Openings have been treated by many different means. Openings in thick walls were deep-set cutting off the illumination. This was corrected by splaying the sides, sills and in some instances the heads. The splayed sides were lined with light-coloured materials to reduce the glare. Large openings were lattice covered to diffuse the illumination.

An opening’s treatment systems primarily come into being as a corrective addition to an existing opening. The add-on facilities are necessary improvisations due to the changed circumstances or use. Over a period of time many diverse treatments’ systems accumulate, each trying for appropriate siting. Layering is the simplest way of placing several such systems. But it prioritizes the layers by sequencing them. Such assimilation often takes away the individual capacity of a treatment system.

Openings’ treatment systems, which are on different sides of the opening unit, are commonly difficult to coalesce into a single system. Similarly opening treatment systems that can function only if they remain at some distance from the opening unit or other treatments, may not be amalgamated. Opening treatment systems providing optional choices may need to function as individual system and so cannot be mixed. Yet assimilation of openings’ treatments systems lead to natural efficiency and so it is vigorously pursued.

Solar radiation and road side noises are better handled on the outside face and privacy and internal acoustics are better managed from inside face. As needs are realized, technology becomes viable, and economics permits, several window treatment systems are devised. The various solutions coexist in the same spatial location, or function by appropriate sequencing in time. Fixed glazing is simpler and efficient in controlling heat, sound and moisture movement and so ventilation is better managed elsewhere and by some other means. There are many situations where current technologies do not offer comprehensive solutions.

Openings’ treatments initially develop as a series of layers: shading devices and storm shutters on the outer face, glazed shutters, safety-bars as mid opening facility, and the mosquito nett, sheer and opaque curtains as the interior layers.

The spatial distance between individual systems is eliminated to assimilate the layered systems. And the sub systems are programmed to become functional when required. When several sub systems have some similar bearing like for example ‘the orientation’ or have common elements like the size, form, location, procedures for installation or removal, trigger for being functional, the assimilation process begins.

Some openings' treatments alter the character of the original architectural opening systems. Interior Designers may not have the authority over continuance, alteration, addition or removal of an architectural feature. Interior Designers have to devise a scheme to rectify the situation but only from the inside face. Such an exercise often proves futile, inappropriate and costly. Opening’s treatment systems provided on the internal face are often perceptible through the glazing and manifests as a changed outlook of the exterior side. In such situations the Interior Designer has to operate in coordination with the architect or provide an appropriate solution.

Interiors are susceptible to very frequent changes, compared to exteriors. Interiors change, because occupants age and change physically as well as psychologically. Other conditions such as social, cultural and economic are ever variable. Interior opening treatments are add-on systems or are made of easily replaceable elements. For sensorial variety interiors require opening treatments of tactile -sensorial finishes, and such systems inherently have a shorter life span. Internal treatment systems instead of passing through a process of integration are replaced by a new comprehensive system.

Openings' treatments once set, either remain in the same state or allow lots of variations. Variations may be triggered manually or automatically through some electro mechanical devices, programming or stored instructions, chemical or biological changes. Some variations are natural, like seasonal changes in vines and shrubs, breeze induced creases and falls in curtains and draperies, ageing or weathering of wood, stone.

Openings' treatments, when designed as demountable and replaceable or add on systems, allow technological up gradation, style improvisation and choice variations. Such openings’ treatment systems have a shorter life span and no effort is made to achieve a comprehensive entity. Integrated openings' treatments are longer lasting.

Opening’s treatment as a masking element, frame the opening itself, and also the view through it. Openings that are proportionateley smaller require a larger surround or framing to highlight their presence. The surrounds are simpler linear forms but gates have cubical forms such as: towers, abutments, ramparts, bulwarks, bastions, bastilles, battlements, belvederes (chhatri), buttresses, campaniles (bell-tower), etc. to signify their presence. The openings also frame the view through them. Squarish gaps are round edged by overlapping patterns through lattices, ornamentation and glazing. Divisions in double hung sash windows were originally meant to use smaller glass pieces of inferior quality and clarity, but later continued for the sake of framing the view. The view through an opening is partially revealed, concealed or camouflaged through framing patterns, overlays and lattices, but most importantly by the quality of glazing.

Some of the negative factors that affect the design and conception of an opening’s treatment system are: elaborate styling, re-adaptation of past manners, use of one raw material to reflect the sensuality of another material, extensive or overuse of make-believe techniques, use of many materials and finishes, fast developing and extensive demand for novelty, demands generated by propaganda, over standardization, over simplification, non availability of replaceable components, low degree of designed replaceability.

CLIMATE AND OUR BODY

2010-02-21T05:46:00.000-08:00

9 Climate and our Body

Climate affects our body system very profoundly. The effects are primarily sensed by the skin. Five types of sensations are involved with the skin. The Touch-Pressure (mehanic-o receptors), Cold-Warmth feeling (thermo receptors), Pain and Itch. Cold is a consequence of contraction of blood vessels and warmth is felt due to dilation of blood vessels; both are felt by the same receptors.

Our body functions as a thermo equilibrium system. The thermal bearing capacity has upper and lower limits. The pain occurs at the upper limit of 52̊ C /126̊ F and has a lower limit of 3̊ C / 37̊ F. The Optimum or the comfort level temperature depends on the level of acclimatization. In certain acute work conditions like mines, metal smelting plants, textile plants, cold storage, the level of efficiency or productivity depend on the endurance level and adaptability of the body. A body may endure or adopt to certain abnormal conditions for a period of time, but there may occur side effects. The side effects may be realized in a different form and at a different time.

Our body gains heat from the atmosphere and also dissipates excess heat to it, to maintain a thermal equilibrium. The human body maintains itself at an average temperature of 98.4̊ F / 37̊ C. There are many minor variations in body temperature, which are considered normal. Body temperature is highest in the evening and lowest in the morning, within a range of 1.5̊ F / 1̊ C. Infants have a very imperfect mechanism for regulation of body temperature. A fit of crying may elevate and a cold wash may lower the body temperature. Aged persons have a low metabolism and so maintain a lower body temperature. It takes much longer for an aged person to gain or dissipate body heat. Female body temperature is slightly lower than male. The type food one takes affect the body temperature. High protein foods increase the body temperature. The act ingestion and food digestion raises the body temperature. Exercise increases the body temperature, because only 25 % of muscular energy is converted into mechanical work, rest comes out as body heat. Atmospheric conditions like, atmospheric temperature, humidity and movement of air, affect the efficiency of heat exchange from the body, and so the body temperature.

There are three types of heat generating processes in the human body. Conversion of food matter into useful energy is a continuous heat generating process. Muscular activities like even sedentary work or sleeping, are heat generating processes. Lastly, certain infections and dysfunctions within the body, elevate or lower the body temperature by extra ordinary rate of heat generation or weakened heat dissipation mechanism. Of all the energy produced in the body only 20 % is utilized, rest 80 % is surplus heat.

Normal skin temperature is between 31̊ and 34̊C. As the air temperature approaches the skin temperature heat loss from the body gradually decreases, vasomotor regulation will increase the body temperature to 34̊C to maintain the heat loss, but if air temperature is higher, the convective heat loss may not work.

As long as temperature of the opposite surface or object (sun, fire, radiator) is below skin temperature, the body can lose heat by radiation. But once it reaches an equilibrium occurs, body will rather gain heat by radiation.

When the convective process is inoperative and radiation heat gain is positive, the body can maintain the thermal balance by evaporation. Evaporation can occur if air has velocity and appropriate humidity (low). Even in case of very high humidity conditions a high velocity air can remove the humidity.

A person exposed to constant high rate of sweating and permanent vaso-dilation can have lot of physical strain with loss of work efficiency.

The body must not only release all the excess heat that is generated from within the body, but all the excess heat as gained from the environment. Heat is lost from the body by radiation (60 %), evaporation (25 %), by convection and conduction (15 %).

Heat is lost through radiation, if there is a difference in temperature of opposing surfaces. Evaporation heat loss is controlled by the level of humidity in the air (dryer the air, faster the evaporation), temperature of the air, body and rate of air movement. Body dissipates heat through evaporation by perspiration, sweat and exhalation of air. Convection occurs when the air in the vicinity of skin becomes hot, expands, decreases in density, and elevates to allow cooler air in its place. Rate of heat convection from body depends on the difference in temperatures (skin & surrounding air) and rate of air movement. Conduction depends on the difference between the body temperature and the contact object.

The body continues to accelerate or decelerate the heat loss till it reaches an equilibrium. Heat loss is accelerated by several body functions like perspiration, high transfer of heat to the skin by increased blood circulation (vaso-dilatation). When these prove to be insufficient, sweating occurs. In hot climates the heat loss rate is lower due to unfavourable atmospheric conditions. But by lowering of the body heat generation (lower metabolic and muscular activity), the net amount of heat to be dissipated can be reduced. But this requires some time to take effect. On immediate basis when the heat loss is not balanced with heat gain `heat stroke' occurs. In cold climates the heat loss is higher, so heat balance is achieved by conservation of heat and by appropriate heat gain. Heat production is raised by certain reflex secretions (adrenaline, thyroxine), higher intake of food (increased metabolic activity) by reflex shivering (muscular exercise) and by sufficient insulative protection. The body may control the heat loss by vaso-constriction (lower blood supply), and depressed sweating.

Many physical, chemical and bacterial agents disturb the heat regulation mechanism and cause fever. These may be due to increased heat production or reduced heat loss, or both.

In reptiles and amphibia heat regulation mechanism is absent. Their body temperature rises or falls with the atmospheric temperature. Hence they are called cold blooded animals. In abnormal temperature conditions they regulate the body temperature by suitable habitat. In winter they go deep into burrows or in hibernation (minimize the metabolic heat generation). Mammals and birds are known as hot blooded creatures, because the heat regulation mechanism is well developed, and they are able to maintain a level of body temperature.

Comfort of an occupant in an environment also depends on subjective variables or individual factors:

1. Acclimatization: exposed to new conditions a person shortly (approx. 30 days) acclimatizes himself.
2. Age and sex: Older persons take much longer to adjust to temperature change, and as a result slightly higher temperature. Women also have slower metabolic rate than men so prefer a little higher temperature.
3. States of health:

Activity heat output in watts
Sleeping 70
Sitting, typing 130/160
Standing, working at a bench 160/190
Walking 220/290
Digging 440/580
Sustained hard work 580/700

BMR : Basal metabolism rate: It is the amount of heat given out by a person is awake, but physically and mentally at rest in a comfortable condition of atmospheric temperature, pressure and humidity, 12/18 hours after a normal meal.

Normal BMR in an adult male is 40 Cal per sq. mt. of a body surface per hour. (females 37 Cal /sq. mt.). Average surface area of an adult male is 1.8 sq mts. In children BMR is high and as one ages it decreases. This is due to the fact that children have high surface area compared to their low weight. Generally higher the surface area greater is heat loss, but a large body also generates greater amount of heat.

In colder climates BMR is high to compensate the high rate of heat loss. In tropical climates BMR is purposely lowered by the body to retard the heat generation.

Muscular and energetic people have a high level BMR compared to people living a sedentary life. Nature of diet affects the BMR. High protein foods have high BMR. After 2 hours of food ingestion BMR rises and maintains the high level for 4 hours.

Ductless glands (adrenal medulla, adrenal cortex, thyroxine, anterior pituitary and insulin) discharges increase the BMR. Any dysfunction of these glands affects the level of BMR.

Moderate pressure changes (sea level to hilly regions) does not change the BMR. But a fall of pressure by ½ the normal barometer pressure (which occurs in very high mountaineering or in high altitude non pressure air craft flights) reduces the BMR. However increase in oxygen pressure (anesthesia) does not raise the BMR.

For every 1 F rise in body temperature, as in case of fever, raises the BMR by 7 %. This is due to the fact that high body temperature increases the chemical processes of the body and so the BMR.
Light exercise + 30 to 40 %
Walking + 50 to 60 %
Severe Exercise + 100 %
Mental work (maths problem) + 3 to 4 %
Strong emotions + 5 to 10 %
Sleep - 10 to 13 %

Conditions which increase the BMR
Hyper thyroidism + 100 %
Fever
Diabetes insipidus
Leukemia + 20 to 80 %

Conditions which lower the BMR
Starvation, malnutrition
Hypo thyroidism
Addison's disease
Lipoid nephrosis.

BIO-MIMICRY

2010-01-08T07:07:00.000-08:00

Did you read about Design Processes -in my notes on FB ? It is a design approach that is followed in parts and cannot be exclusively applied to achieve a product. Architecture is an amalgamation of several products and systems, so cannot be expected to reach full scale Bio-mimic stage at any level. One can have a conscience to this end but that will not be an excuse to leave all traditional design processes (ref to note on design processes).

You need to define what is a system, what are the Systems in buildings and what is a system approach. For these refer to first few chapters of my notes on Interior Components & Systems at www.gautamshah.in

No architect or designer can claim to be an exclusive follower or even substantial adherent of Bio-mimicry. If some one claims so it could be false prevention.

Do not look for a building of this nature, there are none in the world or likely to be so in future.

You can find out more about Bio-Mimic materials that are being developed-conceptualized. For this check books/ Internet resources about Material Sciences (very advanced and recent). You may touch mechanical engineering faculty (knowledgeable and young one better).

Then proceed to search for parts and components that 'behave' in this fashion.
Your work could end in formulation of concept/hypothesis as to how complex systems can be organized with this as the theme.

DESIGN APPROAHES

2009-12-18T18:12:00.000-08:00

from Interior Design Practice and Office Management Part 3 : www.gautamshah.in

There are many ways a Design is created. A design emerges from some of the obvious conditions such as:

Is it a nascent effort (first ever) or routine application ?

Which are the technologies involved ?

What is the desired nature of output ?

What are the human and other resources available ?

Can the design be substantially achieved through personal effort or will require input from others as well ?

What is the scale of detail and how is it to be communicated to the executors of design ?

Which are the presentation tools and communication methods available ?

Yet one the most important factor that affects the Quality of Design is the Technic of Design or the Design Process.

Some of the important Traditional Design approaches are detailed here: These traditional design approaches are not exclusive in themselves or comparable.

1 Holistic approach
2 Component approach
3 Redesign or Re-engineering
4 Concurrent engineering or Simultaneous design.

Other New Design processes are discussed briefly in the later section of this note.

A Systems Thinking
B Conservation of Resources
C Bio-Mimicry

1 Holistic Approach

Design effort that conceives a complete and self-contained system to begin with is called a Holistic Approach (Whole to the Part). Holistic approach entails germination of an intuition into a complete system. Such creations are very personal, akin to a work of art, often not functional, Holistic creations are one time achievement and often not reproducible. Holistic approach is useful in areas where sufficient information is unavailable or there is a distinct disinclination to search for the detail.

Holistic approach is inadvertently followed when inspiration rather than logic causes a design. A holistic conception and its execution, if distanced in time, some recall is required forcing documentation of the design. With documentation the holistic creation may not remain as wholesome.

The term holism was introduced by the South African statesman Jan Smuts in his 1926 book, Holism and Evolution. Smuts defined holism as the tendency in nature to form wholes that are greater than the sum of the parts through creative evolution.

The whole is more than the sum of its parts -Aristotle. Holism (from holos, a Greek word meaning all, entire, total) is the idea that all the properties of a given system (biological, chemical, social, economic, mental, linguistic, etc.) cannot be determined or explained by the sum of its component parts alone. Instead, the system as a whole determines in an important way how the parts behave. Reductionism is sometimes seen as the opposite of holism. In science reductionism is seen as a complex system that can be explained by reduction to its fundamental parts. Chemistry is reducible to physics, and biology is reducible to chemistry and physics, similarly psychology and sociology are reducible to biology, etc. Some other consider holism and reductionism to be complementary viewpoints to offer a proper account of a given system.

2 Component Approach:

A complex entity is perceived, as if composed of several subsystems each of which is already substantially real and functional. One is required to solve the inter relationship of subsystems, and while doing so, upgrade the original subsystem or possibly select a new subsystem. Component approach (parts to the whole) provides systems that are reliable, but usually traditional. Where situations demand a radically different or a novel solution, Parts to the Whole design approach is often inadequate. The component approach requires one to have complete over view of the system, and be able to recognize the value of the component in the whole. This is rather simplified by recognizing the time and space extent of the subsystems. The components dwelling or manifesting within such domains may not have any affectations beyond their domain boundaries, so can be dealt easily.

3 Redesign or Re-engineering:

Most products, however claimed to be original, are only improvised version of some existing thing or a Redesign. This is a well-accepted design approach for products' development. It has perhaps, a little less relevance in design processes of unique or first ever systems, such as Civil structures and Architectural entities.

Japan perfected the process and achieved distinctive product design solutions in early 1960s. Sony music system Walkman has been evolved through such efforts. At that point of time taped music system were very bulky or heavy weight. To enjoy the hi-fi sound quality outdoors, one had to have large sized twin speakers, heavy batteries for power supply, and spool type tapes. A Walkman helped redesigning of these subsystems and a completely innovative product was launched.

Manufacturers need to design new products and launch them before a competitor can do. Redesign or Re-engineering is used for product development for Automobiles, `white goods', office equipments, etc. Markets are continuously surveyed to find out the features that make certain products to be leaders in the market. An attempt is made to improvise and absorb such features.

As one is operating with a successful subsystem, the chances of its failure are less. Redesign generates a product in its new Avatar. Redesign addresses to deficiencies of aging technologies, fast changing tastes and varying operative conditions of products. It gives very specific clues which new features are accepted and which are the emergent technologies. It also allows faster incorporation of new technologies as new subsystems being offered by inventors and innovators are continuously sought and included. New products are launched with minimum changes to existing tools and plant. Workers only need to upgrade their skills, and new employees or new training schedules are not required. The improvised product has slight familiarity with the existing range, and as a result the comfort of acceptance is high.

Redesign practitioners operate with notions that:

A whole system is divisible into subsystems, each of which can be improvised.

These subsystems can be improved in-house, but technologically better solutions are being developed by others, so identify them and collaborate to resource such emergent solutions.

It is more efficient to redesign or re-engineer a known system, then go into basic research to discover a new entity.

A product of redesign process has fewer chances of failure, because one is improvising upon a working system.

Transfer or absorption of new Technologies is very fast.

Redesign processes require a lot of field surveys for identification of a market leader product. The field data is often so enormous and with minor or rare variants that may require statistical processing. Very often feedback from consumers is subjective in nature. There is a distinct danger for the design leader/ team to get entangled in the data collection and interpretation work at the cost of essential design creativity.

Organizations, that deal in very competitive markets prefer redesign processes as it allows them to continuously update their product with minimum of risks.

4 Concurrent Engineering or Simultaneous Designing:

Nominally large projects are divided into several task modules, each of which were till recently handled sequentially. Experts or team working in their own domain used to handle the problem by freezing it (status quo). The solution was then transmitted to the project leader. Every time a major change was proposed all other modules had to be reset, forcing rethink and rework. To
avoid such problems, project designing is now handled Concurrently or Simultaneously.

To overcome the delays of sequential working, several teams are formed to handle tasks concurrently (to work in parallel mode). For these, the organization must have necessary resources, alternatively the work is outsourced to external experts. The concept of concurrent engineering or simultaneous designing requires fast communication channels for live or virtual linkage. Design changes are immediately transmitted both ways, to the project leader as well as teams handling specific tasks. Very often the design process is in a public domain like Internet world wide web through which anyone can contribute ideas, products, etc. CAD files, spreadsheets and databases are structured to be multi access document systems.

For example, a significant design change in a structural design of a bridge span will affect design of many other sub systems. It could mean change of loads on the columns, foundation structures, scaffolding requirements etc. Each of these would have new design parameters, but with electronic drafting tools and instant communication means, all design changes can be apparent to all the concerned agencies, immediately.

The Concurrent Engineering or Simultaneous Designing works with following notions:

A system can be perceived as consisting of several dependent or independent subsystems. If the nature of the dependency can be defined, then the subsystems can be dealt by the Same Team rescheduling it to a date before or later (sequentially) or by Different Teams simultaneously (in parallel).

Association of different teams primarily allows superior technological input. Different teams working in Parallel Mode offer faster a throughput. Teams located in different time zones though do not fully operate in parallel mode, offer advantage of local technologies and 24x7 daylight working hours.

Virtual parallel processing of projects occur in many different ways. Database, spreadsheet, CAD drawings and other documents can be altered by many different users, with each version or layer identified separately and a possibility of assimilating (merging) it selectively.

Current days high speed virtual communication (broad band internet, video conferencing) allow changes to be proposed, confirmed and accommodated in real time mode.

The design evolution becomes participatory. It does not remain restricted to hired or appointed experts, but becomes a public domain affair with inventors, innovators and other free-lancers offering novel ideas. Such offers are usually on a try it-like it-buy it, basis, i.e., without any consultancy charges or purchase-payment obligations.

Concurrent Engineering or Simultaneous Designing works best when resource constraints are very acute. It helps in completion of projects in the shortest possible time and maximizes the profit or advantage. It matches tasks to available human resources, machines capacities. Organization dabbling in off the track jobs cannot suddenly recruit new employees, upgrade the competence of staff or resort to over-time payments for the extra work, use concurrent engineering. Concurrent Engineering or Simultaneous designing is one of the best methods to infuse new technologies, adjust to erratic finance flows and cope up with external factors like climate, political conditions, etc. These methods allow use of human and other physical resources however, remote they may be.

During post world war period New Design Approaches have evolved. Some of the important trigger factors are:

Shift from National or Individual dominant producer/ supplier Standards to Industry standards ir International consensus standards (such ISO = International Standards Organization).

Shift from traditional material + procedure specifications to Performance specifications, mainly for Government purchases.

Quality Conscience through adherence to voluntary declarations through ISO 900x, 1400x, etc. It also includes declaration of social and other obligations for all products, services and actions.

Provision of Guarantees and warranties of assembled or combined systems by third party professionals or audit and evaluation organizations, rather then by the designers or planners of the projects.

The role of media and NGOs in documentation, active reportage and proactive participation beyond the Governmental controls.

A design approach is now not an exclusive process for creating a physical product or a concept, but an all-inclusive strategy to last from conception of a product, its formation and its dissolution including all the after-effects it may generate in future. Every human endeavour is seen to be an entity of our environment. From such thinking many New Design Approaches have emerged.

A Systems Thinking:

One of the first one to emerge as a result of world war II experiences and later the development of Management Sciences is the Systems Thinking (see chapter on Systems Thinking). A systems approach considers an object or human activity as an exclusive or dependent part or sub-system of a larger system. The exclusivity of the of a part is not real, but an intended isolation to study and design the subsystem. The subsystems are accelerated or decelerated in either time or space, or both to mark the likely areas of failure. Systems Thinking being an all inclusive approach, naturally considers operation or working of the creation and its final dissolution.

B Conservation of Resources:

It also in some manner includes Minimalism, miniaturization, rationalization and simplification of everything. This is not new thinking, it has been part of mankind forever, but as a Design Conscience it helps in creating better solutions in a new perspective. This approach was favoured due the development in electronics.

C Bio-Mimicry:

Bio mimicry presupposes that all things in nature are superior and work efficiently. It also accepts that natural things have complex working and many areas are in grey zones, that is not easily comprehensible. But the approach assumes that it is matter of time for grey zones to clear out, and all bio-mimicked things will have greater efficiency and relevance.

SPATIAL CHARACTER OF THE WINDOWS

2009-12-15T22:13:00.000-08:00

from Interior Components and Systems : Windows -- http://www.gautamshah.in

Windows are surface elements, but a surface that is penetrable. As a surface element it has a great presence on both exterior and interior sides. A window is fairly a complex entity against the comparatively simplistic wall. Its surface never remains static. Its shutters are shifted to different positions. The contextual conditions like climate, illumination, distance and angle of observation and the purpose of use are continuously varying and in turn reshape the windows’ perceptive form. The external changes are reflected as a reverse -a mirror image in the glazing surface, and the interiors are seen through it. A window, on a single picture frame, simultaneously reveals the changes occurring in the interiors as well as exteriors. The dynamism of the window gets enhanced further by the framing, masking and filtration of the perception.

A window is like a membrane, which may not permit one to go through it, but it allows to stretch out the sensorial faculties. We see, smell, listen and feel the other side through the window. The extension to the other side of the window through the sensorial faculties is always short and casual. The frugality experience stimulates us to go across it, albeit by other means. A person on the outside perceives the safety in the interior, and the one in a bounded space sees the variety of experiences available outside. Doors are dilemmas, either go out or remain in, but a window provides no such options.

Windows have been used for opening out the interior spaces or for bringing in the exteriors. The historical window with opaque glazing of heavily coloured pot glass was extremely colourful but static. As the glass became thinner, lighter in colour the changes in outside levels of illumination began to be noticed on the interior face. This was aided by use of water white Cristallo glass. Interiors seemed much more natural, and attuned to the outside changes in light intensity. Till 19th C windows were vivid elements in an otherwise static exterior or interior surface. From outside the Cristallo was a dull opalescent surface, but clear glass with better casting, polishing and fire finishing began to be iridescent. The glass was recognised as having two distinctly different faces. Iridescent on the outside face due to reflections and a ‘water-white’ flawlessly clear and non glossy surface on the interior face. Corbusier used the opaque iridescence of the exterior surface to juxtapose the exterior masonry surface. But FLW used the deep shadows to eliminate the exterior iridescence and colour staining to break interior clarity. Mies used the exterior mirror like gloss to reflect the changes occurring in the surroundings simultaneously showing up the interior, and thereby reduce the massiveness of the built-form. Window glass is now often used to mix the realities of interior and exterior happenings on a very large joint-less single plane. The mix creates a very vivid object, like a water body reflecting the sky and the floor concurrently. Metalized opaque glass belies the two-way transparency of a see-through element.

Wall to wall glass openings dissolve one or many sides of a volumetric space, reshaping its perceptive size, scale and extent. The spatial illusion becomes more intriguing when such a large reflective glass surface is used.

We are conditioned to expect certain spatial effects in a space. A narrow space visually gets widened by a glass opening, though functionally remains the same. Skylights and clerestories add ‘lightness’ to the space. Lights such as roof holes focus the attention. Openings, depending on their location and nature redefine the space configuration. The stratification of view to the outside offers different scale to the space. Significantly bright areas highlight the details, and so are perceived and registered, more effectively then darker zones. A window becomes an element for changing a space, intentionally and accidentally.

Windows are furrowed gaps into an otherwise solid mass. The depth is highlighted due to the dark interior, and shadows cast by strong and directional light. The shadows as a form creating element was very well exploited by L. Kahn in his Asian buildings. The same effect at a micro scale and in repetition creates a lattice used in Indian Architecture. Windows like bay, bow, Mashrabiya and oriel have been used to enlarge interior spaces and also to correct the interior shape of the space. Zarokhas add to the interior space but have also been used to undulate the exteriors.

Masking has been very commonly used to change the character of the windows. Greek and Roman architecture subdued the openings as a secondary and less visible layer. Romanesque windows once again came to the surface, but openings were framed by the semi circular arch. Coordinating several windows was a concern as the height of the rounded arch was defined by the width of the opening. Gothic architecture solved the problems of geometric composition by pointed arch. It also created a system of subdividing the window opening through mullions, transoms and glazing bars. The window opening was masked by traceried patterns. Window masking became an effective tool to overcome the deficiencies of glass, size, clarity and impurities. The deficiencies made the windows subservient entity of the load-bearing structure. Glass houses, orangeries, etc. allowed windows to define a space without the use of a wall. The need for very large and deep sun lit spaces for bus depots, railway stations, markets, and factories redefined the windows spatial nature.

Framing is a property of all openings. Openings have their sides and mid members within the view cone depending on the point of observation. Palladio masked and framed the exterior face of the opening. The double-hung sash windows did the same on both, exterior and interior face. Framing is now used as an inevitable joint management system, and but often made imperceptible. Stratification (window openings’ position @ low, mid or higher level with reference to height of the user or the task plane) is an important ergonomic parameter that affects the spatial perception.

Transparency is a quality of the glass, and the most important aspect of the surface of the opening. A window opening in the form of a glass curtain wall or shop front, shows up the space in its exterior surface configuration, and also the spatial depths of its interiors. The simultaneity of the exterior and interior spaces adds to the dilemma of the physical reality vs the virtual reality.

COMMITTING A CLIENT FOR JOB

2009-12-10T18:47:00.000-08:00

from Interior Design Practice and Office Management - 1 www.gautamshah.in

Nature of relationship: Relationship between a professional and a client develops very gradually. Client and professional usually have some degree of rapport, even before a job is discussed. A professional and client both wish to delay any discussion about fees, terms and conditions.

Delays in Formalization of Relationship:

Why a Client may wish to delay.

A Client is unsure, if at all professional is needed for the problem, and wether the professional is the right person for the job.

A Client as an official (of an organization), may not have the authorization to initiate the retention process for a professional.

A Client may not yet have, the permission, land ownership, funds, etc., to initiate the project.

A Client may shrewdly wish to negotiate with other professionals, or is trying to collect free ideas, and later carry on the job on own.

Why a Professional may wish to delay:

A Professional (at least well established ones), check out their client completely, before agreeing to take-on the project.

A Professional (fresher) is always eager to get-on with the job. Yet such professionals delay discussing the fees, terms and conditions because that can disturb the budding, but fragile relationship with the client.

A Professional may be waiting for the client to be firmly determined, so that fees and terms can be properly negotiated, and a firm commitment can be sought.

Formal Commitment (consent): The relationship between a client and professional, must develop formally, and as early as possible. For a professional, securing a formal commitment (consent) from a client, for a job, is one of the most difficult of all professional tasks. Consent commits a Client to pay the professional for the services to be rendered. With the consent a Professional becomes obligated to deliver the expected services.

Contracts and MoUs: Ideally two parties must initiate their relationship with a contract, according to the laws of the land. A Contract is a very formal expression of intent between two parties. It is too much to expect a contractual relationship in the initial stage of a job, when the client and the professional hardly know each other, or have yet fully formed a project. Just the same, even without a contract a relationship must be nurtured. Normally this is not very difficult, when both the parties are willing, enthusiastic and have a mutual faith. A memorandum of understandings (MoU) (for further details see chapter: 1.06 Contract), is a tool, frequently used as a step towards a full legal contract.

Cost of Inconstancy: For a professional a job begins with investments in labour, stationary, materials, and intellectual skills. Whereas a client remains worried, if the professional will at all deliver the services, of required quality, and in prescribed time.

When a Professional fails to deliver, (even if any advance sum, that may be fully refunded) a client's time and effort are wasted (both non calculable entities).

When a client refuses to acknowledge, or rejects the professional's contribution, all the labour, stationary and input of intellectual skills (only some of it is calculable) are lost.

An Informal Relationship can turn very vicious at any stage. When disputes arise either of the parties may refuse to even acknowledge the relationship between them. In such a situation the Professional will lose all that was spent in understanding, preliminary working, planning of the project. This could include not only labour, stationary but patent ideas. On the other hand, the Client will never recover the time wasted in searching, identifying and engaging the professional.

Circumstantial Evidences of Job Commitment: It is very natural for Clients and Professional to be extremely careful about things they say and do in the initial stages of a job. For a professional who is often operating without formal consent, securing a proof that his involvement has a tacit approval of the client, is very important. The evidence in such a case is usually circumstantial, and generally not tenable in a court of law, unless corroborated by other circumstantial or real evidences.

These are proofs that establish the time, location, context, contents, pre and post effects of a happening or an event (here the client's commitment). It is not full evidence, because it may be lacking in one or many of these factors. Circumstantial evidences are of many types:

1. Records and minutes of meetings with the client -location, time, context, witnesses, etc.

2. Record of telephone talks with the client,

3. Correspondence to the client,

4. Replies from a client for the queries by the professional,

5. Changes, doodles, and notes, etc. made on drawings and other documents by the client during meetings,

6. Original plans, sketches, writings, data, etc. as supplied by the client,

7. Keys, authorizations to visit the site.

Retainer Fee: The best commitment, next only to a legal contract, is payment of a Retainer fee. A retainer fee, however small, signifies establishment of a relationship, between a client and a professional (a retainer fee should not be confused with retention money: see chapter: 1.13 Tenders ). Ideally the amount of a retainer fee should be large enough to cover the labour, stationary, and the cost of patent (original or exclusive) ideas, required to generate a schematic design (or similar a stage, when first fees become due). The cost of patent or unique idea is collected at first go, because a unique idea or a concept once exposed to an outsider like a client loses its originality, and so the value.

A Retainer Fee is very different from Retention Money -which is part of job execution process, an amount retained from payments to the contractor to accumulate a guarantee amount so that a job will be completed as per the schedule and according to the specifications and other terms and conditions.

Formal relationships (e.g. a contract) usually have built-in Redressing Procedures with compensations, so that, in case of a failure no one is harmed. An Informal Relationship in total absence of corrective remedies can create lots of problems.

Different types of Clients and typical troubles: Until a professional secures formal consent, each class of client poses varied set of problems.

An Individual Client, as a single person may seem to be one of the simplest entities, but unpredictable whims cause unforeseen problems in the job.

A Specific Client, representing a formal or informally constituted group, with appropriate authorization, e.g., president of a club, behaves almost like an individual client, but with responsibility and sincerity.

Group Clients or Committees, being multifaceted are very difficult to handle. A professional must treat such members as if they are one-entity, any individual queries or suggestions must pass through their designated leader. All decisions and actions of such group clients are necessarily formal, so delays are inevitable. Nevertheless, once decisions are made, job commitment is not a major problem.

STORAGE SYSTEMS

2009-12-02T19:41:00.000-08:00

Storage systems constitute the largest and the most important group of amenities, that make bare spaces worthy of inhabitation. We not only store materials but also tools to work upon the materials. Stored things help us to conduct our life at a rational pace. Storage spaces occupy substantial space and often require very acute management.

Materials that we store include not only physical, static and non static things, but biologically live beings (pets) and nonphysical things like ideas, concepts, feelings, experiences and thoughts. Tools include gadgets to process various types of materials and also utilities that facilitate storage of materials.

Some of the things we store are static or less mobile and can be stored without being 'contained', while things like gases, liquids, and biological beings need to be contained. Nonphysical things are stored in terms of their impressions formed on some physical medium.

At domestic level we store,
1. edibles
2. other provisions
3. clothing
4. raw materials
5. tools.
6. Energy resources.

Edibles are stored mainly because their supply is seasonal or time related. Other provisions are stored for the same reason and also because we may consume only a small part of the commercially available or producible lot at any instant. Clothes are stored because their use is a climate and often occasion related. Raw materials need to be stored to amass a usable size of stock and to season or process them. Tools need to be stored because we use them over and over again not only for the same tasks but also different tasks. Energy resources are localized and often seasonal.

At commercial level we store mainly
1. raw materials or consumables,
2. tools
3. energy resources (fuels, kinetic energies etc.)
4. records.

At industrial or production level in addition we store output products and output effluents. At all levels we also need to store means, mediums and containers for storage, measurements, handling and transportation.

Like all human activities the act of storing is very purposive, so provides an impetus to some form of organization. Stored things are far more organized than a very vast left out universe whose order is unknown and is beyond control.

Things are always stored with a clear concept that these will be retrieved in future. A person who stores things may not be able to relish them, unless he has a way to retrieve them at the right occasion, location and format.

Things are generally stored with perception that these are items of wealth and their value will be greater when retrieved. The increment in value may be due to sheer act of containment (location massing), aging (maturing, ripening), organization or orderliness induced through the act of storing, and art or technique of retrieval. Like all wealth, the value of stored things changes with time, and this change may not add to the wealth.

Different societies endow special importance to certain commodities, as prime things worthy of possession and display. It could be utensils, crockery, clothes, handicrafts, bags, containers, Sanduks, Pataras, gadgets, tools, armaments, trophies, prizes, certificates, photographs, paintings, sculptures, antiques, jewel ry, stuffed animals, or a pet.

Storing is also called archiving. In archives generally documents are stored, retrieved and re stored. These documents are preserved and often restored.

Things need to be stored when we wish to condition their state. During storage controlled modifications are allowed or supported. Stored things are affected by not only the environment (atmosphere) but by gravity, magnetic and other energies.

Things are also stored to isolate them, because an encounter with them is likely to be hazardous or inclement to the well being of people or environment. Things are also stored (dumped) when one does not know what to do with the items, or because economically it is not viable to `store' (organize, rationalize) them. Dumped things have no perceptible value, but there is an expectation that dumped things will degenerate eventually, or a better technique or suitable opportunity of dealing with them may become available in future.

There are many different types of storage units. Within our body, Kidneys, Glands, Levers, Stomach, etc. are examples of storage systems. Petroleum tanks, Reservoirs, Septic tanks, Granaries or silos, Settling ponds, Jails, Auditoriums, Concentration camps, Detention camps, Sheep yards, Balloons are also storage units. Atmosphere is a very vast and almost infinite storage unit of energy, dusts particles, radiation, moisture, gases etc. Solid walls and wool garments are capable of storing heat so function as storage unit. Most things store kinetic energy in proportion of their mass. Fusion energy within particle bonds is also a storage system. Ships, Transport containers, Railway wagons, Submarines, Airplanes are transportable storage systems.

Liquids and gases need vessels to contain them. Since vessels have shape defined by the quality of material and construction technique, their size is inherently limited. Things which are comparatively small in size (grains, chips, boulders) may require some type of containment, if stored at angles steeper then their angle of repose or under vibratory conditions that can displace them. Containment is necessary for mass transportation, bulk-handling, high density for packing, and to reduce the amount of air space within the bulk. Containment is often done in modulated units, to improve transportation, stacking and handling. Pallets are modulated units used for lifting goods through fork lifts. Ship containers, gas cylinders, injection vials, medicinal capsules, bullets, grenade, are some of the examples of modulated storage units. Things that are irregularly sized or shaped, can be stored in heaps, provided there is no chance of a spread out. However things that are uniform in size and shape can be stored in stacks. Stacking and heaping systems of storing, both have size limitations. In stacked and stored things, items placed at the bottom are not only difficult to retrieve but there is an overloading burden on them. Such a burden may cause changes in stored things. In stacked or heaped storage, each of the stored elements interacts differently with the environment.

Shirts or clothes, when overburdened, show unwanted creases. Woolen pullovers and suits when overburdened loose their fluffy character, and look flat or dead. Silk Sarees loose their tenderness, while rayon get an indelible permanent press. Cotton mattresses when overburdened for long become stiff. Over heaped cement bags get a false set. Overburdened soils over a period turn into a rock like structure. A person with overburdened memory tends to forget less important thing. Oxygen when heavily burdened (compressed) turns into a liquid and Carbon dioxide into ice like form.

Even for things stored within their burdening limits the process of retrieval will affect the quality of storage. Things stored in a library book shelf pattern can be retrieved, irrespective of order of storage. But heaped or stacked things can be retrieved as `first stored - removable last'. In grain stores like silos all old grains must be removed before fresh ones are stored or alternatively a bottom extraction must be arranged.

Dry edible items like food grains, and condiments are best stored at low humidity and at slightly lower temperature than average. Wet or moist foods and cooked foods need a temperature lower than one that allows bacterial growth. Most bacteria get sterilized at 70 C (as in pasteurization) but once the temperature is lowered there is a likely hood of recurrence of bacterial growth. However, foods stored below 4 C may retard bacterial growth.

Design of a storage unit depends on:
1. Storing procedures: handling, packing
2. Storage format: heaps, stacks, contained
3. Environmental conditions desired
4. Codification, identification
5. Retrieval procedures

2008-09-09T00:15:00.000-07:00

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